Ethno-religious conflict and reconciliation : dynamics of Muslim and Christian relationships in Ambon

Abstract

This thesis analyses the Ambon conflict from 1999 to 2002, and discusses the reconciliation process by which the conflict was resolved. It argues that there were two significant factors in the conflict. First, ethno-religious segregation existed in the Ambonese islands from pre-colonial times until the present. Under the New Order regime (1965-1998) a situation of Christian dominance changed to one of Muslim dominance in terms of access to local political power and economic resources. Secondly, a culture of premanism existed whereby gangs, thugs and laskars with the support of State elements (including security forces) were able to incite ethno-religious conflict. Both 'state premanism' and loose informal groups, coming under the category of 'private premanism', played a pivotal role in instigating, inflaming and continuing the conflict by provoking both the Muslim and Christian communities to attack each other. The Coker preman, an Ambon-based gang, under leadership of Berty Loupatty and Agus Wattimena (50, d. 2001), had operated in Muslim and Christian regions since the 1980s. They gained the support of elements in the Indonesian Armed Forces who used them to instigate the earlier conflict in December 1998 and the conflict from 19 January 1999 onwards. With the aid of handy-talkies, hand-phones and standard military weapons, the provocateurs successfully forced Ambonese Muslims and Christians into ethno-religious conflict. Christians were provoked to oppose having transmigrant and migrant (Butonese, Buginese, Makassarese, Javanese and Sumatran (called BBM)) Muslims, living with them in the islands. By contrast, both indigenous and migrant Muslims assumed that Christians cooperated with the separatist Republik Maluku Selatan (RMS) group, as represented by the Front Kedaulatan Maluku (FKM, Moluccan Sovereign Front) with Alex Manuputty as chairperson. Rumours spread that Christians were seeking to conduct Muslim-cleansing in the Moluccas. In March 1999, Javanese Muslims responded by declaring a Jihad against the Christians-cum-separatists, to protect Ambonese Muslims from Christian slaughter and to defend the Indonesian nation against the separatist threat. Furthermore, in the name of religion and nationalism, the Laskar Jihad took up the banner of Jihad in Ambon in January 2000. This Jihad movement forced Ambonese Christians to seek a greater Christian solidarity and to mobilise in the form of the Laskar Kristus (Christ Warriors). They also sought international intervention to resolve the conflict. Mainstream Ambonese Muslims and Christians were eager to forge a reconciliation. They had attempted to do so from the early stages of the conflict in January 1999 up until the Malino II agreement in February 2002. Muslims and Christians proposed the strategy of re-implementating the Pela Gandong tradition as a basis for inter-ethnic or inter-religious harmony. Measures to ensure equality of public access to political positions and economic resources for both the Muslim and Christian communities had to be negotiated. This underlined to both communities the importance of structuring a local democracy, by assimilating local tradition and modem values. It also highlighted the necessity for real power and economic-sharing arrangements under professional security forces in the spirit of regional autonomy.