Ethno-religious conflict and reconciliation : dynamics of Muslim and Christian relationships in Ambon
Date
2003
Authors
Sholeh, Badrus
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This thesis analyses the Ambon conflict from 1999 to 2002, and discusses the
reconciliation process by which the conflict was resolved. It argues that there were two
significant factors in the conflict. First, ethno-religious segregation existed in the
Ambonese islands from pre-colonial times until the present. Under the New Order regime
(1965-1998) a situation of Christian dominance changed to one of Muslim dominance in
terms of access to local political power and economic resources. Secondly, a culture of
premanism existed whereby gangs, thugs and laskars with the support of State elements
(including security forces) were able to incite ethno-religious conflict. Both 'state
premanism' and loose informal groups, coming under the category of 'private
premanism', played a pivotal role in instigating, inflaming and continuing the conflict by
provoking both the Muslim and Christian communities to attack each other.
The Coker preman, an Ambon-based gang, under leadership of Berty Loupatty and Agus
Wattimena (50, d. 2001), had operated in Muslim and Christian regions since the 1980s.
They gained the support of elements in the Indonesian Armed Forces who used them to
instigate the earlier conflict in December 1998 and the conflict from 19 January 1999
onwards. With the aid of handy-talkies, hand-phones and standard military weapons, the
provocateurs successfully forced Ambonese Muslims and Christians into ethno-religious
conflict. Christians were provoked to oppose having transmigrant and migrant (Butonese,
Buginese, Makassarese, Javanese and Sumatran (called BBM)) Muslims, living with them
in the islands. By contrast, both indigenous and migrant Muslims assumed that Christians
cooperated with the separatist Republik Maluku Selatan (RMS) group, as represented by
the Front Kedaulatan Maluku (FKM, Moluccan Sovereign Front) with Alex Manuputty as
chairperson. Rumours spread that Christians were seeking to conduct Muslim-cleansing in
the Moluccas. In March 1999, Javanese Muslims responded by declaring a Jihad against
the Christians-cum-separatists, to protect Ambonese Muslims from Christian slaughter
and to defend the Indonesian nation against the separatist threat. Furthermore, in the name
of religion and nationalism, the Laskar Jihad took up the banner of Jihad in Ambon in
January 2000. This Jihad movement forced Ambonese Christians to seek a greater Christian solidarity and to mobilise in the form of the Laskar Kristus (Christ Warriors).
They also sought international intervention to resolve the conflict.
Mainstream Ambonese Muslims and Christians were eager to forge a reconciliation. They
had attempted to do so from the early stages of the conflict in January 1999 up until the
Malino II agreement in February 2002. Muslims and Christians proposed the strategy of
re-implementating the Pela Gandong tradition as a basis for inter-ethnic or inter-religious
harmony. Measures to ensure equality of public access to political positions and economic
resources for both the Muslim and Christian communities had to be negotiated. This
underlined to both communities the importance of structuring a local democracy, by
assimilating local tradition and modem values. It also highlighted the necessity for real
power and economic-sharing arrangements under professional security forces in the spirit
of regional autonomy.
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