Brokers of status : the development of bhakti (devotion) and sarkar (government) by Bhils of southern Rajasthan

Abstract

In this thesis the problems of cultural incorporation, and how and why the concepts bhakti (devotees) and sarkar(government, authority), and the status groups bhaqat (devotees) and sarkari naukar (government officials) have developed among Bhils in the Dungarpur District of southern Rajasthan, are investigated. Relevant theoretical literature is considered, and historical sources and data gathered whilst living in four Dungarpur villages between 1979 and 1981 are analyzed. Historically, Bhils were separated and distinguished, but not isolated, from other societies. Military defeat by British-led forces in the nineteenth century impressed the Bhils with the power of government, and encouraged some Bhils to work for government. Popular devotional (bhakti) movements developed among Bhils as an alternative path to status at the end of the nineteenth century, as the Bhils turned to settled agriculture. The external economy has now extensively penetrated Bhil villages. Government is benevolent and particularly benefits those Bhils who are government officials. Other Bhils proudly identify as landowners, although many also have to undertake labouring work. Status groups - bhaqat and government officials - are constructed around families, and are often more likely to be found in particular clans in a village. The status groups give particular prominence to the concepts bhakti and government. Bhaqat and government-employed Bhils are masterful men, and brokers of other-worldly and mundane status or rank for other Bhils. Delight in song, a traditional feature of Bhils' culture, chiefly concerns the problematical, the anomalous, and those who have achieved status. Classifications of time and space reflecting bhakti, government and 'tribal' patterns are variously used by all Bhils. Practices of bhakti and institutions of government have significant implications for status. The practice of bhakti and government involves exchanges of food and money which define status. All Bhils share a consciousness of bhakti defined by consumption of pure substances, and consciousness of government, because of the pervasiveness of government institutions and because modern technology is associated with government. Only bhaqat and government officials derive significant benefits from this common consciousness of Bhils. The local manifestations of bhakti and government might be realized by any Bhil, but they are effectively realized by those few, who mediate between Bhil and non-Bhil society. The premises and assumptions of bhakti and government do not provide a basis for uniting Bhil interests in opposition to the interests of other Indians. The status of bhaqat and of government officials derives ultimately from outside Bhil tradition but it is effective within that tradition. The relationship between bhaqat and Bhil officials, and other Bhils, is homologous to the relationship between other Indians and all Bhils. Successful Bhils are to varying degrees bicultural, and their allegiance to one set of cultural values at any time depends in part upon context. Show more