Early Daoist biography : a study of Shenxian zhuan

Abstract

This dissertation is a study of Shenxian zhuan, a collection of biographical records of Daoist immortals traditionally attributed to Ge Hong who lived from the end of the third to the middle of the fourth centuries C.E. The Introduction seeks to define the term shenxian and discusses ideas concerning immortality in texts of the Eastern Han and Sanguo periods. It analyses the categories into which Shenxian zhuan was placed in early bibliographies and shows that it was first regarded as a text from a branch of history. Finally, evidence is adduced to show that in all likelihood the biographies derive from commemorative records of noteworthy local religious figures. Chapter two discusses the textual status of Shenxian zhuan and the authorship of Ge Hong. It concludes that while there is evidence that Ge did compile a work of this name, it is clear that all modern versions of the text are recompilations of the Song or later. Thus, an original text is not completely recoverable. It is also argued that the Shenxian zhuan of this period probably contained about twice as many biographies as the modern recompiled versions. The third chapter analyses the ideas that concern immortality contained in the biographies. It focusses on three major questions. What qualifications were necessary, if any, to become an immortal? How did one become an immortal? What special powers did immortals possess? The examination of these issues demonstrates that while there was a degree of broad agreement on major concepts, the biographies display a large measure of variation on points of detail. Chapter four examines the narrative and structural features of the biographies and focusses on how they fit into the Chinese biographical tradition. This discussion, like that relating to ideas of immortality, shows that the biographies are characterized by heterogeneity. The narrative and symbolic structures of several biographies are analysed to show how they function. The fifth chapter discusses the problem of biographical records in other sources of the same period of figures who appear in Shenxian zhuan. The appeal to historical accuracy of the Shenxian zhuan biographies, the different generic constraints of biographies in the official histories, records in secular collections of worthies and in records of marvels and types of editorial intervention are examined. Finally, it discusses the way some of the biographies may act as a critique of official records. The thesis concludes with a short discussion of the later development of the Daoist biographical tradition and later careers and cults of some of the figures celebrated in Shenxian zhuan.