Types of Play at Work and Effects on Work-Related Outcomes

Abstract

There has been a growing interest in play at work in recent times. However, despite its popularity in contemporary organisations such as Google and Facebook, there is still considerable debate about the effects of play in the workplace. On the one hand, many recognise that play at work can be beneficial at the individual, team, and organisational levels. However, others argue that play can negatively impact organisational outcomes, and that work, and play should be kept distinct from one another. Research on play at work has predominantly focused on the drivers and positive outcomes of play and is fragmented across disciplines and theoretical bases. Little consideration has been given to potential dysfunctional and negative outcomes associated with playing at work. Also, little is known about why people engage in play at work, and how it leads to specific positive or negative outcomes. This research program draws on conservation of resources (COR) theory as an overarching theoretical lens through which to examine boundary conditions, mechanisms and both positive and negative consequences of play at work. Through a review and two empirical studies, the impact of play, operationalised as both an activity and as a trait, is investigated. The first empirical study uses an experimental design to investigate the impact of different types of play (as a state) on negotiation, and the second uses a survey design to investigate the impact of playfulness (as an individual difference variable) on in-role performance and counterproductive work behaviours. Relational and psychological resources are proposed as the linking mechanisms between play and outcomes, and two moderators are investigated. This thesis is structured as follows. Chapter 1 introduces the topic of play at work and provides motivation and rationale for the subsequent empirical chapters. Chapter 2 presents an integrative review of the research on play at work to date. It reviews existing definitions and operationalisations of play and discusses a recent conceptualisation; it reviews theoretical perspectives and empirical research, focusing on both the antecedents and consequences of play at work; and it proposes an agenda for future research. Chapter 3 utilises a laboratory experimental design to investigate how play, operationalised as a state or activity, impacts negotiation performance. This study examines the effect of two types of social play, structured and unstructured, on negotiation performance, via two parallel personal resource mechanisms (positive affect, a psychological resource, and relationship quality, a relational resource). Motive for play is proposed as the boundary condition on these relationships. Chapter 4, a field study, investigates how playfulness, operationalised as a personality trait, impacts two work-related outcomes (in-role performance and counterproductive work behaviours) via two types of personal resources (positive affect, a psychological resource and leader-member exchange, a relational resource). It also examines the interaction between employees' and supervisors' levels of playfulness and addresses the question of playfulness being helpful or harmful in the workplace. Finally, chapter 5 integrates the key findings of both empirical studies and offers a general discussion on the implications of research into both operationalisions of play at work. It also outlines the limitations of this research program and discusses avenues for future research.