Perseverance in the face of change : resilience assessment of Balinese irrigated rice cultivation

Abstract

The subak in Bali is a type of farmer-managed canal-irrigated rice cultivation system, which has long been recognised for its efficient water use and high rice productivity. Subaks are firmly embedded in local Hindu culture with institutions that guide farmers in sharing water equitably. Water sharing is based on principles of proportionality and transparency and irrigation system maintenance is egalitarian. In the 1960s, rice production was modernised and commercialised with Green Revolution technologies to feed a rapidly growing population. Some of these new technologies initially caused considerable disruption in raising the productivity of rice and irrigation efficiency. Meanwhile, Bali's formerly agriculture-based economy began to diversify with prospering tourism and other industries. Farmers engaging in part-time farming and multiple occupations off-farm have become the norm. Urban and industrial development increasingly competes for agriculture's resources, such as land, labour and water. This increasing pressure raises questions whether subaks are well-equipped to maintain their productivity and efficient resource management in the long run.

This thesis studies these past and contemporary challenges to subaks. It applies an interdisciplinary approach to analyse the data collected in 18 months of field research in Bali. It defines a conceptual model of the subak based on social-ecological systems and resilience theories to examine the impacts of the Green Revolution and ongoing rural diversification. This thesis demonstrates that the subak as social-ecological system, despite temporary and permanent modifications, has remained resilient to the Green Revolution and ongoing rural diversification. The subak has incorporated new agricultural technologies, allowing farmers more flexibility to pursue diversified livelihoods, and the subak cultural and institutional framework has persisted over time. This thesis discusses three scenarios of possible trajectories the subak may follow depending on how current trends unfold. The analysis shows that subaks in peri-urban areas face different challenges to those subaks in the uplands where resource pressure is less intense and off-farm work further away.

Ultimately, the future survival of subaks lies in the hands of Balinese society, the government and farmers. Pathways to subaks' survival include the recent nomination to the UNESCO world heritage list of three specific subak-related sites or the new agrotourism model promoted by the local university. Alternatively, better educated young Balinese, new marketing opportunities for speciality produce, increased viability of payments for ecosystem services combined with the inherent characteristics of Balinese social organisation may open up new pathways for farmers to continue the subak in ways which are so far unimaginable.