Conquering the Conqueror: Reassessing the Relationship between Qubilai Khan and ’Phags pa Lama
Date
2016
Authors
Ringpapontsang, Tenzin Choephak
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Abstract
The relationship between Qubilai Khan (1215–1294), the Great
Khan of the Mongol Empire, and the Tibetan Buddhist monk ’Phags
pa Blo gros rgyal mtshan (1235–1280) during the 13th century is
often viewed as emblematic of the nature of Tibet’s
relationship with the Mongol Empire. More broadly, this
relationship has also come to be construed by some scholars as
the dominant model for later mchod yon bonds, commonly translated
as “priest-patron” associations, which are perceived as a key
framework for Tibetan foreign relations over the following
centuries. As such, this relationship has received considerable
scholarly attention. Nevertheless, it is a relationship deserving
of a reassessment.
The dominant approach among contemporary studies has been to
perceive and examine ’Phags pa through the lens of his utility
for the Mongol Khan in the pursuit of political and militaristic
objectives, only affording ’Phags pa the role of a useful tool
for the Mongols. This study demonstrates that these functionalist
realpolitik interpretations are incongruent with salient
historical accounts that indicate that ’Phags pa was offered
extraordinary treatment and wielded influence far out of
proportion with what might be expected based solely on these
functionalist narratives. Instead, the historical evidence points
to a deeper relationship centred on a personal-religious bond.
And ’Phags pa’s compositions, particularly Advice to the
King—an epistle he composed specifically for Qubilai—offer
insights into this bond and the potential of the discourses
contained in them to alter the power dynamics of the
relationship.
This thesis examines the key themes of Advice to the King and
the broader tradition within Buddhism of speaking truth to power
to which it belongs, placing the treatise within its literary
context and providing a view into the sorts of teachings that
have been given by Buddhist advisors to people of power and what
sorts of results they may have hoped to achieve. While Advice to
the King is, most manifestly, a religious text, this study also
presents how it embodies and gives rise to potential power
through seeking to shape the constitution of current truths, and
therefore, the power relations they carry with them.
While the wars that Qubilai waged and the punishments that he
delivered to convicts show that his policies and actions were not
always in accordance with ’Phags pa’s teachings, a range of
historical accounts do attribute to the Khan characteristics and
actions consistent with aspiring to live up to them. These
include his generous treatment of subjects, the leniency of the
penal system that he oversaw and his apparent reluctance to
deliver capital punishment—all facts that stand in contrast to
the popular imagery of the ruthlessness of Mongol khans.
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