Loyalist personalities and activities in the Sung to Y{u00FC}an transition, ca. 1273-1300

Abstract

This dissertation is a study of loyalists during the Sung to Yuan dynastic succession, ca. 1273-1300. By means of an examination of their background and loyalist activities, and a reconstruction of relationships between individual loyalists, I attempt to obtain a broad view of Sung loyalism and its significance to contemporaries and their response to alien rule. After a critical examination of official histories and the writings of the Sung loyalists, I suggest that Sung loyalism should be observed in terms of a spectrum of relative, rather than absolute, values. In addition, the intensity and duration of loyalty changed over time and through circumstances. I delineate three traditions of Sung loyalists in this spectrum: the chung-i loyalists who died during or for the Sung cause; the i-min loyalists who survived the collapse of the dynasty and/or loyalist resistance and lived some years under Mongol rule, and the marginal loyalists (a subgroup of the i-min) whose conduct during their later years drew strong criticism from traditional historians. Contrary to traditional views of Sung loyalists as individuals totally uncompromising to the new regime, evidence indicates that after the defeat of loyalist resistance in 1279, even among the exemplars accommodation was more often the case than resistance. In the introductory chapter I briefly outline the divergent interpretations of Mongol rule and its impact on the structure of Chinese society, and indicate the lack of a broad and comprehensive view of the Sung loyalists. Chapter Two is a reappraisal of the events of the end of the Southern Sung and the political circumstances under which the leaders of the loyalist movement planned and carried out their resistance from 1276 to 1279. I offer some new * interpretations, such as showing Wen T'ien-hsiang to have been a newcomer rather than the leading personality of the Southern Sung court and the loyalist movement, contrary to traditional misconceptions that he had singled-handedly planned and executed the resistance. In this reconstruction, Ch'en I-chung and Li T'ing-chih are found to be the senior officials who emerged as the unchallenged leaders in 1275-76. In Chapter Three I examine some aspects of both official and unofficial historiography of the Sung loyalists. Wen T ’ien-hsiang's writings, along with his prejudices, are shown to have influenced both the Sung-shih and the works of the Sung loyalists, and accounted for certain discrepancies among the sources. I also discuss the possibility of censorship under the Yuan, concluding that more likely the Sung loyalists, their descendants and editors were cautious and censored themselves. I then look at later writings reflecting a local concern, which produced favourable accounts at the expense of historical objectivity. One example raised is Ch’iian Tsu-wang's research into the contributions his local district and his ancestors made in connection with Sung loyalism. In this chapter I also deal with several myths in the traditional portrayal of the Sung loyalists. The next chapter deals with the chung-i loyalists (martyrs); in particular, the participation in the loyalist resistance by Wen T'ien-hsiang, Li T'ing-chih, Lu Hsiu-fu, Chang Shih-chieh, and Hsieh Fang-te are discussed in more detail. I also examine the relationships between these key personalities and their loyalist followers, and suggest that the organization and structure of their support was within the traditional mu-fu system. Chapter Five reconstructs nine i-min loyalist groups (survivors) in the first generation of Mongol rule: Annam (Indochina), Ta-tu (Peking), Kuei-chi (Shao-hsing), Wu-chou (Chin-hua), Lu-ling (Chi-an), Ch'ing-yuan (Ningpo), Jao-chou, P'ing-chiang (Soochow), and Tung-kuan (near Canton). The key loyalist figures active in these centres— Wang Yuan-liang, Chia Hslian-weng, Wang Ying-sun, Lin Ching-hsi, Hsieh Ao, Fang Feng, Wang Ying-lin, Hu San-hsing, Liu Ch'en-weng, Ma T'ing-luan, Cheng Ssu-hsiao, Rung K'ai, and Chao Pi-hsiang— are discussed with respect to their attitude towards the conquest and life under Mongol rule. I indicate that in most cases the loyalism of these individuals became less intense as they socialized with Yuan officials and gave tacit approval for their sons to seek employment in the new regime. The Hang-chou (Hangchow) and Hu-chou (Wu-hsing) loyalists such as Teng Mu and Mou Yen are examined in Chapter Six, which is essentially concerned with the activities and interpersonal relationships of Chou Mi, a versatile writer and artist. Among Chou Mi's extensive circle of friends were many in the employ of the Yuan government and a young generation of artists and scholars who later, with deep regret, accepted official appointments. This change was evident in the late 1280s and 1290s, by which time their loyalty had become transformed into accommodating positions disapproved of by some contemporaries and later historians. The concluding chapter discusses the essence and duration of Sung loyalism in view of the research from the previous chapters; in addition, I briefly look at its impact on later generations.