Twitter's Role in the Social and Political Mobilisation of GCC States and Societies

Abstract

This thesis examines Twitter's role in social and political mobilisation in the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), since the broader regional uprisings of 2010 -11 (the Arab Spring). It seeks to answer the question of what role Twitter plays in the politics of the GCC region on distinct levels, including that of society (grassroots), state (government and monarchy) and between states (diplomatic relations). The discussion is undertaken in light of Jurgen Habermas's 1960s theory of the public sphere and its ongoing conceptual developments in the information era. This thesis uses the methodological frameworks provided by communication studies, political science and computational social science. Drawing on the Twitter archive, complemented by pertinent secondary sources, it applies a novel hashtag-driven method to collect and collate data on historical cases. In doing so it identifies and conceptually develops the 'hashtag public sphere' (HTPS), a term coined to describe the contribution of Twitter's hashtag function to the formation of the online public sphere. A number of case studies are utilised in order to show Twitter's diverse role in shaping GCC politics across distinct spheres. This thesis calls on recent examples of Twitter activism, showing how Twitter is implicated in new forms and directions of online activism, intersecting with offline protest. It covers both known and anonymous accounts, from the six GCC states, and examines the regional phenomenon of @mujtahidd. It illustrates how Twitter is opening up new spaces for dissent in the traditionally restrictive political and media environments of the authoritarian Gulf states. At the same time, this thesis points to the way in which Twitter is increasingly being hijacked by governments - through the creation of bots and electronic committee accounts or via the manipulation of hashtag trending topics - in an attempt to shape public opinion, direct debate and curtail the nascent freedoms of their citizens. Twitter continues to foment unrest, as GCC region citizens take to social media with demands for greater freedom and political reform, while governments jockey to manipulate and seize control of the emerging online public sphere. This thesis additionally looks at Twitter's role in political dialogue and diplomatic relations between GCC states, showing how Twitter is used to deliver political messages, set political agendas and interfere in the internal affairs of other GCC states. As Twitter contributes to an escalation of tensions, the familial and diplomatic ties that have long prevailed are under imminent threat. Indeed, the circulation of a language of war on Twitter, places at risk the continuing unity of the GCC and threatens the future security and stability of the region's states and citizens.