Policy formulation processes in Malaysia and Australia: cultural differences do matter

Abstract

This thesis examines the influence of culture in the national policy formulation processes of Malaysia and Australia. Superficially, these two countries have common stated strategic policy priorities (economic development and social stability), similar Westminster-based architectures of government, and comparable civil services. However, under the influence of culture and history, the two countries‘ policy formulation processes have developed very differently. In seeking explanations for the similarities and differences in government processes, the thesis demonstrates how cultural and historical experiences influence the policy formulation processes themselves, the associated policy outputs and outcomes, and ultimately the governments‘ ability to achieve their stated strategic policy priorities. It uses a case study of bilateral trade policy formulation to illuminate its findings in a real‘ national policy formulation context. Some specific examples of cultural and historical experiences shaping the policy formulation processes in Malaysia include: a legacy of pre-colonial (kerajaan) polities which existed in the Malayo-Indonesian archipelago up until the nineteenth century; colonisation by the British; and an omnipresent ethnic ideology‘ resulting from continuing fear of social unrest (experienced dramatically during the racial riots of 1969). In Australia, relevant cultural and historical experiences include: a colonial experience different from that of Malaysia, an ensuing scepticism about government leadership and the political elites; an emphasis on individualism; and values of egalitarianism and equal access to opportunity. By drawing out the role of cultural influences and historical experiences in the policy formulation process, the thesis provides a new culturally-responsive model for the analysis of policy formulation processes. Building on traditional policy formulation models which are based on logic‘ and rational choice‘, the culturally-responsive model brings out, in addition, the more subjective and less straightforward influences bearing on a country‘s policy formulation processes. In the final chapter, the thesis considers some of the implications of culturally-influenced policy formulation processes. It examines how country-specific policy formulation processes can create obstacles to bilateral (government-to-government) policy formulation collaboration. In light of these obstacles, the thesis argues that policy makers in Australia and Malaysia need to be more cognisant of cultural and historical differences when seeking to collaborate in bilateral policy formulation. The thesis concludes that better awareness about cultural and historical influences on the respective countries‘ policy formulation processes would likely lead to more comfortable relations between Malaysia and Australia.