no. Reconstruction Morphology Level of reconstruction Definition Scientific name Reversal Gloss Etymology Etymology gloss Etymology comment Etymology source Pattern irr. from PMP Minority from PMP irr. from PRM Sporadic sound changes Note Form notes History notes Semantic note Borrowed from Doublet Similar (semantic/formal) reconsructions gloss of similar form Semantic Domain Termanu Termanu source Keka Korbafo Bokai Bilbaa Landu Rikou Oepao Ba'a Lole Tii Dengka Oenale Dela Ro'is Amarasi Kotos Amarasi Molo Molo Source Kusa-Manea Amanuban Amanatun Amfo'an Timaus Fatule'u Baikeno Kopas Ketun Insana Miomafo Meto (vague) Funai Helong Semau Helong Helong (vague) Fehan Tetun East Tetun East Tetun source Waima'a Ili'uun Ili'uun source Kisar Kemak Welaun Hawu Dhao Kambera Kambera Source Bima Also found in 1 *aa PRM the; marker of definiteness the Cognition ═a (J:1) ═a ═a ═aa ═aa ═aa 2 *aem PRM tame, domesticated tame ; domesticated *qayam ‘domesticated animal’ PWMP Creatures, domesticated animals ae-k (J:3) ae-ʔ ae-k ae-ʔ ae-ʔ ae-k ae-k ae-ʔ ae-ʔ aem aem (M:4) baeŋ 3 *afa CER insipid insipid Blust and Trussel (ongoing) connect the Rote form with PMP *qambaR (a doublet of *tabaR) but this requires irr. *mb > f. Similarly any connection with *tabaR would require irr. *t > Ø. Sense perception afa~afa (J:3) (On:73) Sumba 4 *afi PRM yesterday yesterday *Rabiqi ‘late afternoon, evening; evening meal; yesterday’ *beni, *esak Time afi-k=a afi-k afis afis afis afi naa afi naa afi, aif neno (M:5) slahin lahin 5 *afu PRM ash, dust ash ; dust ; ground ; floor *qabu ‘ash, hearth, cinder, powder, dust; grey’ Physical world afu (J:4) afu afu afu afu afu afu afu afu afu afu afu afu (M:6) afu, auf ahu apu apu uban 6 *ahi₁ PRM tread out tread ; trample Ø > h /#_Vʔ in Ba'a Motion a~aʔi (J:6) a~aʔi a~ai a~ai ha~haʔi a~aʔi ai ai (M:7) 7 *ahi₂ PRM fire fire *hapuy Ø > h /#_Vʔ in Termanu, Korbafo, Bokai, Ba'a and Lole Physical world, fire haʔi (J:155) haʔi haʔi ai ai haʔi haʔi aʔi ai ai ai ai ai ai (M:7) ai ai haʔi ahi (Mo:1) ai (dJ:111) ai 8 *aho PRM mineral lime, calcium lime, mineral *qapuR *u > *o /_*R#, Ø > h /#_Vʔ in Termanu, Korbafo, Bokai, Ba'a and Lole Physical world haʔo (J:162) haʔo haʔo ao ao haʔo haʔo aʔo ao ao ao ao ao ao (M:34) ao °ao ahu ahu (Mo:2) aʔur (dJ:113) haul 9 *ahu CER dew dew *hapun *aŋɡum Physical world, water aʔu(s) (J:17) 10 *ala *n-ala PRM get, fetch, take; converts verbs into an accomplishment carried out with purposeful intent (Jacob and Grimes 2011) fetch ; get ; take *ala[q/p] Possession n-ala (J:374) n-ala n-ala n-ala n-ala n-ala n-ala n-ala n-ala n-ala {2} n-ala-ʔ n-ana n-ana n-ana (M:21) 11 *ama *ama-k PRM father father *ama People, kin ama-k (J:9) ama-ʔ ama-k ama-k ama-ʔ ama-k ama-k ama-ʔ ama-ʔ ama-ʔ amaʔ amaʔ, ama-f ama-f (M:20) amaʔ 12 *anak PRM child, son/daughter, small child ; small *anak People, kin ana-k {2} ana-k {3} na-ana {4} na-ana-k (J:10) ana-ʔ {2} ana(-ʔ) ana-k {2} ana(-k) ana-ʔ {2} ana(-ʔ) ana=na ana-ʔ {2} a~ana ana-k {2} ana(-k) ana-k {2} ana(-k) ana-ʔ {2} ana(-ʔ) ana-ʔ {2} ana(-ʔ) anak {2} ana-ʔ ana|ʔ anah {2} ana|ʔ {3} n-ʔana anah {2} ana|ʔ (M:21f) anah {2} ana|ʔ 13 *ane nRM braid braid *añam *e > i in Kusa-Manea and Molo verbal form; *Ø > n /#_ in Ba'a and Tii *a > *e /*C+palatal_ Actions ane (J:12) ane ane ane nane nane a͡ene|t ane|t n-ani {2} ane|t (M:23) ani|t 14 *anin PRM wind wind *haŋin Physical world, weather ani(n) (J:13) ani anin ani ani anin anin anin anin anin {2} na-la-ani ainn anin anin (M:23) anin aŋin anin (Mo:4) 15 *aŋɡum CERM dew dew Physical world, water a~aŋu-k a~aŋu-ʔ a~aku-ʔ akum (M:17) akum 16 *ao *ao-k PRM body body *hawak ‘waist, back of the waist’ Body, torso ao-k (J:13) ao-ʔ ao-k ao-ʔ ao-ʔ ao-k ao-k ao-ʔ ao-ʔ ao-ʔ ao-n ao-f ao-f (M:34) afa apa 17 *arum PMeto cuscus cuscus *a > u in all Meto except Kusa-Manea Schapper (2011:264) gives Meto urem without indicating which variety it is from. If this form is not an error, it attests additional complications in the cognate sets I have included here. Penultimate *a has been reconstructed instead of *u as *a > u can be motivated as a case of sporadic assimilation to the quality of the following vowel. The alternate hypothesis, *u > a in Kusa-Manea, would be phonetically unmotivated. Although PMeto *r is regular from PRM *nd, connecting this reconstruction with PCEMP *mansər requires positing far too many irregularities for me to make this connection. *ʔ|mauka|ʔ Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon urum ukum akum ukum ukum 18 *aso CER fetch water, scoop up water scoop *qasu *u > *o Physical world, water aso (J:15) 19 *asu CERM dog dog *asu Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon asu (J:16) asu asu asu (M:30) asu asu asu (Mo:23) ahu 20 *ata₁ PRM above, up, on top above ; up ; top *atas ‘high, tall’ Spatial relations ata (Fox 2016b:2) ata ata ata-ʔ ata 21 *ata₂ Rote first person plural possessive pronoun; our we (incl.) ; 1PL.INCL *ata People, pronouns ata (J:16) ata ata ata 22 *ata₃ PRM slave slave *qaRta ‘negrito, black person’ The semantics across a wide range of MP languages point to the original meaning being ‘black/Negrito person’ which, depending on the race of the speakers, was applied either to themselves or a subjugated population (Mahdi 1994:464ff). *a > e /_# in wRM *hatahori Social and political relations, people ata (J:16) ata ata ata ata ata ata ate ate ate ate ate (M:32) ata {2} at {3} hutu ata ata (Mo:5) aka, ake 23 *ate *ate-k PRM liver liver *qatay ‘liver; seat of the emotions, inner self’ Body, internal organs ate-k (J:16) ate-ʔ ate-k ate-ʔ ate=na ate-ʔ ate-k ate-k ate-ʔ ate-ʔ ate-ʔ a͡ete-f ate-f ate-f (M:32) ate-f faten paten ate-n (Mo:5) akin 24 *atis CERM breast beam of a loom consisting of two wooden bars loom, breast beam of *qatip ‘breast beam of a back loom’ expected *p > s /_# (§3.5.1.3) Clothing and grooming atis (J:16) atis (M:32) atis atis (Mo:5) 25 *atu PRM charcoal, soot charcoal ; soot Physical world, fire atu-k {2} hade atu-k (J:16) {2} hade atu-ʔ ai_atu-ʔ {2} hade_atu-ʔ {2} hade_atu-ʔ {2} haɗe_atu-ʔ ai atu atu atu (M:33) atu 26 *au PRM first person singular pronoun; I, me I ; 1SG *aku *k > Ø People, pronouns au (J:16) au au au au au au au au au au au au {2} kau au (M:34) au 27 *auee CER exclamation of joy or sorrow oh! *qaué PCEMP Speech and language au-é, awé {2} au~au (J:16f) 28 *baa *baa-k Rote lung lungs *baRaq Body, internal organs baa-k {2} ba/deʔe-k (J:18f) baa-ʔ baa-k baa-ʔ baa-ʔ baa-k ɓaa-k faa-ʔ faa-ʔ afaak 29 *baba|ʔ PMeto parent’s opposite sex sibling uncle ; aunt People, kin baba-f baba-f aam babaʔ (M:39) babaʔ baba baba CTimor 30 *badoe *na-badoe PRM grope, touch grope ; touch d-2 vowel metathesis in Meto *oe > eo; *b = b in Meto Sense perception na-fa-loe (J:321) na-fa-loe na-fa-loe na-fa-loe na-fa-roe na-fa-loe na-fa-roe na-fa-loe na-fa-roe na-breo na-bleo (M:73) 31 *bafi PRM pig pig *babuy Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon bafi (J:22) bafi bafi bafi bafi bafi ɓafi fafi fafi fafi fafi fafi (M:107) fafi bahi fahi (Mo:31) wawi vavi hahi 32 *bafo PRM upper surface, top, above top ; above *ba(w)baw *o > a in Termanu, Bokai and Kusa-Manea Spatial relations bafa-k (J:21) bafo-ʔ bafa-k bafo-ʔ bafo-ʔ bafo-k ɓafo-k fafo-ʔ fafo-ʔ fafo fafo fafo-n (M:108) faaf wawan(ne) 33 *bali₁ PRM again, go back, return go back ; return ; again *baliw₂ ‘return’ *l > Ø in Termanu, Bilbaa, Rikou, Dengka, and Dela Collapse/interference from reflexes of *bali₂ < *balik. It is not always clear which forms are reflexes of which reconstruction. I have grouped them by likely semantics. Time bai (J:22) bai bai bali ɓali fai fali fai n-fani n-fani n-fani (M:110) fain palit {2} pait fali fali (Mo:31) vari {2} vəri 34 *bali₂ PRM turn back, turn around turn back ; turn around *balik ‘reverse, turn around’ *b = b in Meto Collapse/interference from reflexes of *bali₁ < *baliw₂. It is not always clear which forms are reflexes of which reconstruction. I have grouped them by likely semantics. Motion fali {2} na-sa-fali (J:122f) fali {2} na-sa-fali fali {2} na-sa-fali fali {2} na-sa-fali fali {2} na-sa-fali fali {2} na-sa-fali fali {2} na-sa-fali fali {2} na-sa-bali, na-sa-fali fali {2} na-sa-ɓali, na-sa-fali ɓaliʔ n-bani n-bani {2} na-ʔ-bani-ʔ {3} na-banit na-bani bali balik ɓale 35 *balu₁ PRM mourn the dead mourn *baluq Blust and Trussel (ongoing) state: ‘Jonker (1908) points out that the Korbaffo [sic.] dialect of Rotinese has fali ‘mourn the dead’, falu ‘orphan, widow’, and he gives this as evidence that […] Termanu falu ‘mourn the dead’ and falu ‘orphan, widow’ are distinct words.’ I agree that this is evidence they are distinct words. *u > i in Korbafo Emotions and values falu (J:124) fali falu falu (falu ?) falu (falu ?) (M:49) 36 *balu₂ PRM widow(er) widow ; widower *balu *b = b in Meto People, kin falu (J:124) falu falu falu falu falu falu falu falu banuʔ (M:49) bebalu faluk (Mo:31) wal~walum ɓalu 37 *balu₃ CER cover, envelop cover ; wrap up *balun ‘bind, bundle, wrap in cloth; death shroud; cloth(ing)’ *mbalu Spatial relations balu (J:28) balu balu balu balu falun (Mo:31) 38 *baŋakuɗu PRM Indian mulberry Morinda citrifolia |ui{Morinda citrifolia} *baŋkudu ‘tree with white fruit and roots that yields a useful dye: |ui{Morinda citrifolia}’ PWMP k-2b *d > *ɗ (expect *r); *ŋ = *ŋ *b > m in Rote; *b = b in Meto; *ŋ > r in Kusa-Manea The addition of the antepenultimate vowel occurred to bring this form into line with the disyllabic CVCV foot structure of PRM. Landu, Rikou and Dengka have added a. (This vowel is also possibly attested by Kotos Amarasi bakʔuruʔ and Molo with CV → VC metathesis of earlier initial **baka with subsequent reduction of the double vowel.) Other languages have added u which can be derived from *a via sporadic assimilation to the following vowel. Initial irregular *b > m in Rote is also paralleled in Malay mengkudu and could be sporadic assimilation to the following nasal and/or due to borrowing from a source different to the source of the Meto forms. The first r in the Kusa-Manea form is currently unexplained. A likely loan spread after the break-up of PRM connected with the spread of weaving and textile dyeing. Plants, tree, plant taxon manukudu (J:347) manukudu manukudu manukudu manaʔudu-ʔ manaʔudu manukudu manukuɗu manaʔuɗu manuʔuɗu kuruʔ ʔbakʔuruʔ , (M:46) baurʔuruʔ kudu, pkudu 39 *batu PRM stone, rock stone ; rock *batu *b > ɓ in second Dela form Physical world batu (J:33) batu batu batu batu batu ɓatu fatu fatu fatu {2} tua ɓatu-ʔ fatu fatu fatu (M:112) fatu, fatu-k batu fatu(k) (Mo:32) waku 40 *bau PRM small shore tree, sea hibiscus Hibiscus tiliaceus |ui{Hibiscus tiliaceus} *baRu *b = b/ɓ in wRote Plants, tree, plant taxon bau (J:33) bau bau bau bau bau ɓau bau ɓau fau (M:112) bau kfau (k)fau(k) (Mo:32, 106) hau (dJ:117) 41 *bei PRM still, yet still ; yet glottal stop insertion and final vowel in wRM attesting PwRM *feʔa Time bei (J:38) bei bei bei bei bei ɓei feʔa feʔe feʔ feʔe, feʔ feʔa (M:113) bii be, bei be (Mo:12) ETimor 42 *belas PRM machete machete *belas Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct this form to PCMP. While reconstruction to a lower level, such as Proto-Timor-Babar, may be justified, this form is not (currently) known to occur outside greater Timor and reconstruction to PCMP is unlikely to be supported unless more cognates are forthcoming. *b = b in most Meto but not Ro'is and Kusa-Manea Warfare and hunting felas (J:130) fela-ʔ felaʔ fela-ʔ felas felas felas felas felas fenas, fenes benas benas (M:57) fenas helaʔ vela hela (On:123) 43 *beli Rote price, bride price buy ; cost ; price ; bride price *bəli ‘buy, value, price; marriage prestations, bride price; purchase’ Possession beli {2} belis (J:41) beli {2} belis beli {2} belis beli {2} belis beli {2} belis beli {2} belis ɓeli {2} ɓelis feli {2} felis feli {2} felis foli-n (Mo:35) heli (dJ:117) weli 44 *beni PRM last night tomorrow, day after ; day after tomorrow ; yesterday ; day before yesterday ; pass *bəRŋi ‘night’ *e > i in nRM (sporadic assimilation to *i?); *i > a/Ø in nRote (antepenultimate vowel reduction) Obligatorily compounded with reflexes of *esak in Rote. *afi, *esak Time bina_esa-k {2} (ndee) bina_esa-k=a (J:50) bina_esa-ʔ {2} bina_esak=a bina_esa-k {2} bina_esa-k=a bin/esa-ʔ {2} bin/esak=a bina_esa-ʔ {2} bina_esa-ʔ=a bina_esa-k {2} bina_esa-k=a ɓin/esa-k feni_esa-ʔ feni_esa-ʔ afiin, afiin=ii fini {2} afina {3} nmeu_n-fini {4} n-fini fini {2} fini fai {3} n-fini (M:119) biŋin {2} biŋin_tai 45 *berat PRM heavy, hard work, weight heavy ; weight *bəRəqat ‘weight, heaviness, weightiness; difficult; pregnant’ *R = *r (fairly widespread in the region for this term) *b = b/ɓ in wRote Sense perception bela-k {2} bela-k {3} ma-bela (J:40f) bela-k {2} bela-k {3} ma-bela bela-ʔ {2} bela-ʔ {3} ma-bela bera-ʔ {2} bera-ʔ {3} ma-bera bela-k {2} bela-k {3} ma-bela ɓera-k {2} ɓera-k {3} ma-ɓera bela-ʔ {2} belat {3} ma-bela, ma~ma-bela-ʔ ɓera-ʔ {2} ɓerat {3} ma-ɓela, ma~ma-ɓera-ʔ maʔ|fena|ʔ maʔ|fena|ʔ maʔ|fena|ʔ (M:296) werek 46 *betə *betə-k Rote foxtail millet millet ; foxtail millet *bətəŋ ‘millet species, probably foxtail millet |ui{Setaria italica}’ Plants, edible plants, crops bete-k (J:47) bete-ʔ bete-k bete-ʔ bete-ʔ bete-k ɓete-k feta-ʔ feta-ʔ botoʔ heten (dJ:117) 47 *beu₁ *beu-k PRM new new *baqəRu ‘new, fresh; recent(ly)’ *VV-k > *VVʔ > VʔV in most Meto (perceptual metathesis) feu Time beu-k (J:47) beu-ʔ beu-k beu-ʔ beu-ʔ beu-k ɓeu-k feu-ʔ feu-ʔ feʔu feʔu feʔu (M:117) feʔu-k feu|ʔ feu|ʔ balu foun (Mo:36) woru 48 *beu₂ PRM bogo tree Garuga Floribuna |ui{Garuga floribuna} *bəRus ‘tree |ui{Acalypha amentacea}’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct *bəRus to proto-Philippine. vague Rote semantics Plants, tree, plant taxon beu (J:47) beu beu beu beu beu ɓeu feu feu feu feu (M:117) bilu kfeu kfeu {2} feu (Mo:106, 33) 49 *biae PMeto buffalo cow ; buffalo Amarasi, Amfo'an, and Molo have consonant insertion to break up *VVV. Ro'is Amarasi has antepenultimate vowel deletion after consonant insertion. Other varieties have vowel deletion to avoid a sequence of three vowels. The original meaning was ‘buffalo’ with later semantic shift to ‘cow’ in many varieties as cows supplanted buffalo as the dominant kind of cattle. Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon bʤae {2} bʤae meetn biʤae {2} biʤae metan bia, biʤae-l (M:64, 66) bea {2} bea ma~metoʔ {3} bea ʔbakaʔ bie, bia biʤae-l {2} biʤae metan biʤae-l 50 *bibi CER pinch pinch *bitbit ‘pull at body part; hold something dangling from the fingers’ *b > mp in Ba'a *ɓiti, *fiti₃ Sense perception fifiʔ pou=na bifiʔ mpimpik mpou=na ɓifik 51 *bini PRM seed for replanting seed *binəhiq ‘seed rice, rice set aside for the next planting’ Plants, edible plants, crops bini (J:50) bini bini bini bini bini ɓini fini fini fini fini fini (M:119) bini fini (Mo:34) wini 52 *biti₁ PRM calf of leg calf (of leg) *bitiəs ‘lower leg (below the knee); calf of the leg’ *t > k in Kusa-Manea Body, limbs, legs biti_boa-k (J:51) biti_boa-ʔ biti_boa-k biti_boa-k biti_boa-ʔ biti_boa-k ɓiti_ɓoa-k fiti_isi fiti_ɓoa-ʔ fiti-n fiti-f fiti-k (M:121) fiki-f pitis_boa 53 *biti₂ Rote jerk, jump up jerk ; jump up *bitik ‘snare, noose trap; spring up suddenly, jerk up (as a fishing line or noose trap)’ *b > p in Meto *fiti₁ Motion na-ka-biti (J:51) pitil, pitir pitin 54 *biti₃ PRM slingshot slingshot *i > e in Meto Warfare and hunting fi~fiti-k (J:137) fi~fiti-ʔ fi~fiti-ʔ fi~fiti-ʔ ɓi~ɓitis fi~fitis {2} fitiʔ k|fe͡iti-s na-k|feti {2} k|feti-s fa~fetiʔ Flores 55 *boaʔ PMeto ten ten While Helong has a cognate, positing this as a simple case of borrowing between Helong and Meto is problematic. If Helong was the donor, this would not explain the form boaʔ used with twenty and above in Ro'is. Similarly, if Meto was the donor it would not explain the k in the Helong form. One possible explanation is that the final ʔ in Meto is from an earlier *k and that this is an early borrowing from pre-Meto into Helong before *k > ʔ occurred in Meto. Middelkoop (1950:48) connects the Meto forms with Meto bua ‘gather’ (see *ɓua) and this is possible. Quantity boʔ=ees {2} boaʔ nua boʔ boʔ=ees (M:76) boʔ=eas buk Helong 56 *boo₁ PRM drive forward, herd herd (v.) *b > *mb in wRM; *b > (*f) > h in Ba'a Jonker (1908:138) suggests this is an onomatopoeic word from a sound made by herders. Creatures, domesticated animals foo (J:138) foo foo foo foo hoo foo mboo na-poʔo (M:442) poa Helong 57 *boo₂ *boo-k, *na-boo PRM smell (good or bad), odour smell ; odour ; stink *bahuq ‘odour, stench’ Sense perception boo-k {2} na-boo {3} ma-boo-k (J:51) boo-ʔ boo-k boo-ʔ boo-ʔ boo-k ɓoo-k foo-ʔ foo-ʔ na-foo na-foo {2} foo meni {3} foo punuʔ na-foo (M:124) na-foo 58 *bua *bua-k PRM fruit fruit *buaq ‘fruit; areca palm and nut […]’ *u > o in Rote *b = b/ɓ in wRote *mbuah Plants, edible plants, fruit boa-k (J:52) boa-ʔ boa-k boa-ʔ boa=na boa-ʔ boa-k ɓoa-k ɓoa-k boa-ʔ ɓoa-ʔ ɓoa-ʔ fua|ʔ fua|ʔ (M:129) fua|ʔ bua fuan (Mo:36) 59 *bufu PRM fish trap trap, fish *bubu ‘conical bamboo basket trap for fish’ *b = b in Meto; *u > o in Meto Warfare and hunting bufu {2} teʔek bufu (J:62) bufu bufu bufu bufu bufu ɓufu fufu fufu bofu buhu 60 *bulan PRM moon, month moon *bulan Physical world, sky, space bula-k (J:63) bula-ʔ bula-k bula-ʔ bula-ʔ bula-k ɓula-k fula-ʔ fulan funun, fuunn funan funan (M:132) funan bulan fulan (Mo:37) wollo 61 *bulu *bulu-k PRM body hair; fur; feather hair ; feather ; fur *bulu Body, torso bulu-k (J:63) bulu-ʔ bulu-k bulu-ʔ bulu-ʔ bulu-ʔ bulu-k ɓulu-k fulu-ʔ fulu-ʔ funu-f funu|ʔ (M:133) bulu wulla 62 *buni PRM ringworm Tinea imbricata ringworm *buqəni *b > h in Meto; *i > e in Meto; *b = b/ɓ in wRote Body, sickness bu~buni (J:65) bu~buni bu~buni buni bu~buni bu~buni ɓuni ɓu~ɓuni buni ɓuni hune hune ʔhonis (M:156) buna wuni vuni 63 *buu PRM blow, blowpipe blow ; blowpipe *buu PCEMP *b > p in wRote; *b = b /V_V in some Meto *fuu Motion na-ta-fuu (J:143) na-ta-fuu na-ta-fuu na-ta-fuu na-ta-fuu na-ta-fuu na-sa-puu na-sa-puu sfuut na-sbuu, na-sfuu (M:479) sbuut hahuuk (Mo:48) 64 *ɓaat PRM crossbeam across ; crossbeam *baRat *b > *ɓ Spatial relations na-ta-baa (J:17) na-ta-ba~baa oʔolaʔa na-ta-ɓa~ɓaa t|baa-t t|baa-t {2} (M:51) 65 *ɓafa₁ *ɓafa-k Rote valley valley *babaq ‘lower surface, bottom; short, low; below, beneath, under’ *b > *ɓ Physical world bafa-k (J:21) bafa-ʔ bafa-k ba~bafa-ʔ bafa-ʔ bafa-k ɓafa-k bafa-ʔ ɓafa-ʔ 66 *ɓafa₂ *ɓafa-k Rote mouth, opening mouth *baqbaq ‘mouth, opening; speak, say’ Reconstructed with the doublet *bəqbəq. Both forms are attested in the Timor region. *b > *ɓ *fefa Body, head, mouth bafa-k bafa-ʔ bafa-k bafa-ʔ bafa-ʔ bafa-ʔ bafa-k ɓafa-k bafa-ʔ ɓafa-ʔ ɓafa-ʔ baha kahan (dJ:119) 67 *ɓaiafa PRM monitor lizard Varanus species lizard, monitor *bayawak PWMP *b > *ɓ Creatures, bugs, creature taxon baʔiafa (J:23) baʔiafa baʔiafa baiafa baiafa-ʔ baiafa baiafa ɓaiafa bairafa baiafa, baiʤafa 68 *ɓakos PRM barn owl owl, barn k-8ʹ (*k = k in Korbafo, Tii, and Oenale; expect ʔ) Creatures, birds, creature taxon kolo_baʔo-k (J:248) kolo_bako-ʔ kolo_baʔo-k kolo_bako-ʔ koro_bako-ʔ kolo_baʔo-k koro_ɓako-k kolo_baʔo-ʔ koro_ɓako-ʔ baos baos baos Helong 69 *ɓaʔi Rote grandfather grandfather *baki Reconstructed to PAN based only on Formosan reflexes. *b > *ɓ; *k > *ʔ People, kin baʔi (J:22) baʔi baʔi bai baʔi=na baʔi baʔi ɓaʔi baʔi ɓaʔi ɓaʔi baki 70 *ɓaʔu CERM several, many many ; several Quantity baʔu (J:33) baʔu baʔu bau bau bea bau bea baʔu|k (M:52) bakun waʔu Helong, ETimor 71 *ɓalafo *ɓalafo-k PRM kamala tree Mallotus philippensis |ui{Mallotus philippensis} vague Rote semantics Plants, tree, plant taxon kai_lafo-k (J:216) kai_lafo-ʔ kai_lafo-k kai_lafo-ʔ ai_lafo-ʔ ai_lafo-k hau_lafo-ʔ bnafu|ʔ, bnafo|ʔ (M:341) 72 *ɓali Rote mix, add something to something else mix *balik PCMP. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) only give Yamdena and Fordata valik ‘mixture of liquid and dry substances’ and the Rote forms as evidence for this reconstruction. *b > *ɓ Food and drink bali {2} ba~bali-k (J:27f) bali bali bali bali bali ɓali bali ɓali 73 *ɓanafi PRM sea cucumber sea cucumber *n > r in Meto Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon nafi (J:373) nafi nafi nafi nafi nafi nafi nafi nafi nafi brafi brafi nahe banahi (Mo:10) (On:164) Helong, ETimor, Flores, Sumba 74 *ɓandae PRM hover, hang over hover ; hang over *nd > d in Bilbaa; *nd > *d > r/l in Meto Motion ndae (J:412) ndae lae dae rae ndae ndae ndae ndae na-brae na-blae (M:72) 75 *ɓaraka Rote box box k-6 This could be a loan but no likely donor language has yet been identified. Tools balaka (J:26) balaka balaka balaka baraʔa balaka ɓaraka balaʔa ɓaraʔa baraka Flores, Hawu-Dhao 76 *ɓasoko PRM slant, sway, dance slant ; sway ; dance k-7ʹ (*k = k in Tii; expect *k > ʔ) for sense 1, *k-6 for sense 2, *k-irr for senses 3 and 4. *k > Ø /V_V in Rote for senses 3 and 4 Motion na-soʔo {2} soko~soko, soʔo~soʔo {3} soo {4} so~soo bapa=a (J:563, 557, 563, 550) na-soʔo {2} — {3} soo {4} so~soo na-soʔo {2} soko~soko {3} soo {4} so~soo soʔo na-soʔo {2} — {3} soo {4} so~soo na-soko {2} soko~soko soko {2} soko~soko {3} — {4} ili_so~soo soko {2} soko~soko {3} — {4} so~soo na-bsoʔo na-bsoʔo (M:85) na-sboʔo 77 *ɓate *ka-ɓate PRM edible grub grub, edible *qabatəd ‘sago grub’ *ə > *e (expect *ə > a in wRM, possibly *ə > *a > e in wRM) *b > *ɓ Creatures, bugs, grub, creature taxon ba~bate (J:32) ba~bate ba~bate ba~bate ba~bate ɓa~ɓate ɓuni_ɓate ɓuni_ɓate-ʔ k|bate|ʔ k|bate|ʔ (M:189) k|ba~bate ka|bata|ʔ 78 *ɓati CERM distribute distribute ; share ; divide Possession baʔe_ba~bati (J:32f) bati bati bati n-bati n-bati {2} n-batis n-bati (M:51) bati batiŋ Helong 79 *ɓatus *ka-ɓatus PwRM sea snail sea snail Creatures, aquatic ba~batu-ʔ k|ba͡utus k|batus 80 *ɓau *ka-ɓau-k PRM bat, flying fox bat ; flying fox *VV-k > *VVʔ > VʔV in Meto (perceptual metathesis); consonant metathesis *kb > bk in Amarasi Creatures, birds, creature taxon bau-k (J:33) bau-ʔ bau-k bau-ʔ bau-ʔ bau-ʔ bau-k ɓau-k bau-ʔ ɓau-ʔ ɓau-ʔ bkaʔu bkaʔu ʔ|baʔu (M:52) ʔ|baʔu k|baʔu khau fau Helong 81 *ɓeɓa *ka-ɓeɓa-k PRM palm leaf stems or stalks (the middle bit without the leaves) palm leaf stem *papaq ‘frond of a palm’ *p > *ɓ; *a > *e Plants, tree, palm, plant parts beba-k (J:36) beba beba beba beba beba ɓeɓa beba ɓeɓa ʔ|beba|ʔ (M:53) hepaŋ beba|k (Mo:12) əpa əpa 82 *ɓee PRM where where ; in ; at *ɓ > m in Meto (also Ili'uun); *e > a in Bilbaa, Landu, Rikou, and Oepao Possibly combines two cognate sets: *mee and *ɓee, though the formal and semantic similarity leads me to present them together. Cognition bee (J:35) bee bee bea bea (u)bea bea bee ɓee bee ɓee ɓee mee mee mee (M:317) mee la mee (dJ:128) ɓee Wetar, Bima 83 *ɓei PRM grandmother grandmother *baqi *b > *ɓ *VV-k > *VVʔ > VʔV in Meto (perceptual metathesis) People, kin bei (J:37) bei bei bei bei bei ɓei bei ɓei ɓei beʔi bei-f, beʔi beʔi {2} bai-f (M:54) beʔi bee {2} been bei-n (Mo:12) 84 *ɓeis PRM crocodile crocodile *VVs > VsV in many varieties of Meto As noted by Jonker (1908:38) some of the irregular correspondences (especially forms with a and ʔ) probably arose because the crocodile is addressed as baʔi ‘grandfather’. Possibly connected with PMP *buqaya, though the vowel correspondences and final consonant are difficult to account for. *buqaya is regularly inherited in Nuclear Rote as *foe. *foe₂ Creatures, bugs, creature taxon beis (J:38) bei bei bai bais baʔis baʔis ɓei bei ɓaʔi ɓaʔi naiʔ_besi naiʔ_besi besi_mnasiʔ (M:61) beʔi besi_mnasiʔ beʔi-ʤ (2) naiʔbais na/basa-r, na/besi_nasiʔ °naʔi_bei (Mo:145) °naʔibein 85 *ɓeki *na-ɓeki PRM strong, capable strong ; able ; capable k-9ʹ (*k > Ø in Rikou; expect ʔ or k) Body na-beʔi (J:38) na-beʔi na-beki na-bei na-beʔi na-ɓeʔi na-beʔi na-ɓeʔi na-beʔi na-beʔi na-beʔi (M:54) na-beiʔ biit (Mo:14) Helong, ETimor, Alor 86 *ɓeko CERM sway, shake sway ; shake k-5/6 Motion beko (J:39) na-beko na-beko (M:55) beko {2} heko Helong 87 *ɓeku Rote bent over bend *bəŋkuq ‘bend, curve’ k-6ʹ (*k > Ø in Rikou, expect ʔ or k) *b > *ɓ; *ŋk > *k Actions beku_tee (J:39) beku_tee beku_tee (beu_tee ?) beku_tee ɓeku_tee beʔu_tee ɓeʔu_tee ɓeʔu_tee 88 *ɓeʔe PRM stay awake awake Body beʔe (J:37) beʔe ɓeʔe beʔe ɓeʔe ɓeʔe n-beʔe n-beʔa (M:53) beʔan n-beʔe beke Hawu-Dhao 89 *ɓela PRM spread out, flat spread out ; unroll *bəkəlaj ‘spread out, unroll (mats, etc.), open out, unfold (as the hand); wide’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PEMP *bolaj and the Rote-Meto forms provide evidence for PCEMP *bəlaj. *b > *ɓ *fela Actions bela {2} be~bela-k (J:39f) bela {2} be~bela-ʔ bela {2} be~bela-k bela {2} be~bela-ʔ bela {2} be~bela-ʔ bela {2} be~bela-k ɓela {2} ɓe~ɓela-k bela {2} be~bela-ʔ ɓela {2} ɓe~ɓela-ʔ ɓela {2} ɓe~ɓela-ʔ na-ʔbena na-ʔbena (M:57) bela belar (Mo:13) hele (dJ:117) bəla 90 *ɓesa *ɓesa-k PRM reonja tree Vachellia leucophloea |ui{Vachellia leucophloea} Plants, tree, plant taxon kai/besa-k (J:215, Heyne 1950:713,lxxii) kai/besa-k kai_besa-ʔ ai_besa-ʔ kai/besa-k ai_ɓesa-k hau_besa-ʔ ɓesa-ʔ besa|k besa|k (M:60) besa|ʔ Helong 91 *ɓeta Rote cut vegetation cut vegetation *bəntas ‘hack a passage through vegetation, blaze a trail’ *b > *ɓ Plants, agriculture beta ai (J:46) beta beta beta beta beta ɓeta beta ɓeta 92 *ɓetə *na-ka-ɓetə PRM tense, tight tense ; tight *bəntəŋ ‘extended, stretched taut, put under tension’ *b > *ɓ The unmetathesised form has not yet been attested in Meto. It could be *kbeta or *kbete. Spatial relations na-ka-bete (J:46) na-ka-bete na-ka-bete na-ka-bete na-bete na-ka-bete na-ka-ɓete na-ʔa-beta na-ʔa-ɓeta na-k|beet na-k|beet (M:189) 93 *ɓetu *na-ka-ɓetu PRM bent, folded bent ; folded ; flexible *bəntuk ‘curve’ *b > *ɓ *fedu Actions na-ka-betu (J:47) betu na-k|betu (M:63) (s)beton 94 *ɓia PRM split split *biqak *b > *ɓ *ɓ > p in Meto; *i > e in Meto glottal stop insertion in Meto The irregularities in the Meto forms indicate that they may not be cognate with the Rote forms. Actions bia (J:48) bia bia bia bia bia ɓia bia ɓia n-peʔa n-peʔe n-peeʔ {2} peʔas (M:428) mbiʔa {2} ɓiʔa 95 *ɓiɓi *ka-ɓiɓi PRM goat goat ; sheep *ɓ > ʔ in Termanu, Korbafo, Bokai, and Ba'a onomatopoeia Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon biʔi_hii-k, biʔi_ae-k {2} biʔi_lopo (J:49) biʔi biʔi bibi bibi biʔi ɓiɓi bibi ɓiɓi ɓiɓi ʔ|bibi ʔ|bibi (M:65) ʔ|bibi bibi (Mo:14) pipi (dJ:133) pipi kahiɓi ETimor, Wetar, SW Maluku, Hawu-Dhao, CTimor 96 *ɓife Rote lip lip *bibiR ‘lower lip’ *b > *ɓ *i > *e /_*R# Assimilations of *ɓ > d in the first sense are due to this term being compounded with reflexes of *doo-k ‘leaf’, compare *ndiki > diʔi_doo-k and *ndake_doo-k > daʔe_doo-k. Body, head, mouth difa_doo-k {2} bifa-k {3} na-bifa ule-k (J:86, 49) bife_doo-ʔ {2} bifa-ʔ difa_doo-k bife_doo-ʔ bifi_doo-ʔ bifi_doo-ʔ bifi_doo-ʔ difi_doo-k {2} bifa-k ɓifi_ɗoo-k {2} ɓifa-k ɓife 97 *ɓina Rote kind of volute shell shell, kind *biŋaq *b > *ɓ Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon bina (J:49) bina bina bina bina bina ɓina bina biŋan 98 *ɓisu PRM ulcer, pimple ulcer ; pimple *bisul ‘boil, abscess’ *b > *ɓ Body, sickness bisu (J:50) bisu bisu bisu bisu bisu ɓisu bisu ɓisu ɓisu bisu na-bisu (M:71) fisur, fisul (Mo:34) vihu 99 *ɓiti PRM pinch pinch ; scorpion *bitbit ‘pull at body part; hold something dangling from the fingers’ *b > *ɓ *t > ʔ /V_V in Rote The Meto forms meaning ‘scorpion’ are mostly from *ka-ɓiti with the nominal *ka- prefix. *bifi, *fiti₃ Sense perception biʔi (J:49) ɓiʔi biʔi k|biti k|biti {2} ka|biti (M:71) biti/ka|biti bitin 100 *ɓitinaa PRM guest tree Kleinhovia hospita |ui{Kleinhovia hospita} Plants, tree, plant taxon bitinaa (J:51, Heyne 1950:1064,lxxv) bitinaa bitinaa bitinaa ɓitinaa betinaa ɓetinaa (M:72) 101 *ɓoho PRM cough cough Body, emission boʔo (J:58) boʔo boʔo boo boo boo bo~boo-s boʔo ɓoʔo boo ɓoo ɓoo n-boho n-boho (M:77) ba~booh 102 *ɓoki *ka-ɓoki-k PRM hollowed out coconut shell used as a container container, coconut shell k-9 Tools bo~boʔi-k (J:54) bo~boʔi bo~boʔi-k bo~boki bo~boki bo~boʔi-k ɓo~ɓoʔi-k bo~boʔi ɓo~ɓoʔi a-ʔ|boʔi buki Helong 103 *ɓo/lau Rote spider spider *lawaq ‘spider; spider web’ Possibly a chance similarity. *wa > *u in Rote source of initial *bo unknown #k|naba|ʔ Creatures, bugs, arachnids bolau (J:55) bolau bolau bolau bolau bolau bolau ɓolau bolau ɓolau lailaon 104 *ɓole PRM areng palm Arenga pinnata palm, areng Plants, tree, palm, plant taxon bole (J:56) bole bole bole bole bole ɓole bole ɓole bone bone (M:82) bone °bone 105 *ɓolo₁ *ɓolo-k PRM hole hole *l > r/l in Meto Spatial relations bolo-k (J:56f) bolo-ʔ bolo-k bolo-ʔ bolo-ʔ bolo-k ɓolo-k na-boor, n-boor bola|ʔ boloʔ bolo Helong 106 *ɓolo₂ PwRM scabies, smallpox scabies ; pox Body, sickness ɓo~ɓolo bono bono (M:83) bobolo Helong 107 *ɓona *ɓona-k CERM fragrant pandanus pandanus, fragrant Plants, useful plants, plant taxon bona-k (J:57) bona-k bona-k bona|k, bono|k bona|k bona|k (M:82) boan|k=aa bona|ʔ 108 *ɓone CERM circle dance dance, circle Motion bo~bone (J:57) n-bone {2} bone-t (M:82) 109 *ɓoni nRM hang, depend on hang ; depending Actions tai_boni (J:588) tai_boni tai_boni tai_boni tai_boni tai_boni tai_ɓoni na-ʔboniʔ (M:83) ta-ʔboniʔ 110 *ɓoŋɡo₁ PRM round, bulbous round Spatial relations bo~boŋo-k (J:58) bo~boŋo-ʔ bo~boŋo-k bo~boŋo-ʔ bo~boko-ʔ bo~boŋɡo-k ɓo~ɓoŋɡo-k bo~boŋɡo-ʔ ɓo~ɓoŋɡo-ʔ ɓo~ɓoŋɡo-ʔ siim tai_boko bukas bokur (Mo:16) boku (On:126) Helong, ETimor, Sumba 111 *ɓoŋɡo₂ *ka-ɓoŋɡo PRM gourd, pumpkin, squash gourd ; pumpkin ; squash Plants, edible plants, vegetables, gourds boŋo (J:57f) boŋo boŋo boŋo boko boŋɡo ɓoŋɡo boŋɡo_meluʔ ɓoŋɡo boko ʔ|boko ʔ|boko {2} atoni na-k|boko (M:79) boŋo boko Helong, ETimor, Flores 112 *ɓoto₁ *na-ka-ɓoto CERM whisper, mutter whisper ; mutter Speech and language na-ka-bo~boto-ʔ na-bo~boto-ʔ na-ʔboto hakbotuk (Mo:51) ETimor 113 *ɓoto₂ PRM Indian beech tree Millettia pinnata |ui{Millettia pinnata} Scientific identification given on the basis of the Molo reflex and the Termanu example sentence. ‘While the oil and residue of the plant [|ui{Millettia pinnata}] are toxic and will induce nausea and vomiting if ingested, the fruits and sprouts, along with the seeds, are used in many traditional remedies.’ (‘Millettia pinnata’ 2020 Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millettia_pinnata. Accessed 17/09/2020). Plants, tree, plant taxon bo~boto (J:59) ɓo~ɓoto botoʔ (M:85) 114 *ɓoto₃ PRM fontanelle neck ; fontanelle The second element of the Rote forms is a reflex of *lii < *liqəR. Body, head boto_lii-k (J:59) boto_lii-ʔ boto_lii-k boto_lii-ʔ bo/lii-ʔ bo/lii-ʔ bo/lii-ʔ boto_lii-k ɓoto_lii-k ɓoto_lii-ʔ boto-n boto-f boto-f ba~boto-n (Mo:7) ETimor 115 *ɓua PRM gather gather *a > e /_# in wRote Spatial relations na-ka-bua {2} bua~bua {3} bu~bua-k {4} bebua (J:60) na-ka-bua na-ka-bua na-ka-bua na-bua na-ka-ɓua na-ʔa-bue na-ʔa-ɓue na-bua na-bua {2} na-k|buaʔ, na-ʔ|buaʔ {3} buaʔ~buaʔ na-bua {2} na-k|buaʔ {3} buaʔ~buaʔ {4} (M:85) ta-bua °nakbua {2} °buan fuʔa|k (Mo:36) ETimor 116 *ɓuas Rote thing, equipment thing ; equipment Clothing and grooming buas (J:61) bua-ʔ bua-ʔ bua-ʔ buas buas ɓuas buas ɓuas ɓuas buat (Mo:18) ETimor 117 *ɓuɓu PRM bubbling, boiling bubble ; boil *bukbuk₁ *b > *ɓ (both initially and medially) Food and drink na-sa-bubu (J:61f) bubu bubu bubu na-sa-ɓuɓu n-bubu (M:87) bubu (Mo:18) bubu 118 *ɓuə *ɓuə-k nRM head hair, frizzy haired hair ; frizzy *buhək ‘head hair’ *b > *ɓ *ə > u in Ro'is Amarasi *VV-k > *VVʔ > VʔV in Ro'is Amarasi (perceptual metathesis) Body, head laŋa_bue-k laka doo bue-ʔ (laŋɡa) ɓue-k naak_buʔu bu/ratu fuhuk fuuk (Mo:38) 119 *ɓuit PRM rear, backside backside ; rear ; ant *buRit ‘hind part, rear, back’ *b > *ɓ *i > a in Molo; *i > u in Kotos Amarasi (sense 1) *VV-k > *VVʔ > VʔV in some Meto (perceptual metathesis) Body, limbs, legs bui-k {2} tane_bui (J:62, 817) bui-ʔ {2} tane_bui bui-k {2} tane_bui bui-ʔ {2} tene_bui bui-ʔ {2} tande_bui {2} tane_bui ɓui-k na-ʔa-ɓuit {2} kas/buʔi ʔ|buʔu-f {2} sa/buit (M:86) {2} as/bui|k vui hui 120 *ɓuku *ɓuku-k PRM node, joint node ; joint *buku ‘node (as in bamboo or sugarcane); joint; knuckle; knot in wood; knot in string or rope’ k-7 *b > *ɓ Body, internal organs buʔu-k (J:66) buʔu-ʔ buʔu-k buku-ʔ buku-ʔ buʔu-k ɓuʔu-k buku-ʔ ɓuku-ʔ buʔu-f buʔu-f buku-n fuku-n (Mo:37) 121 *ɓula Rote open one’s eyes wide open the eyes *bulat ‘open the eyes wide, stare with round eyes’ *b > *ɓ Body na-ka-bu~bula {2} bula~bula (mata deʔe-n-) (J:63) na-ka-bu~bula na-ka-bu~bula na-ka-bu~bula na-bu~bula na-ka-bu~bula-k na-ka-ɓu~ɓula-k na-ta-bu~bula-ʔ na-ʔa-ɓu~ɓula-ʔ (On:125) 122 *ɓuna *ɓuna-k PRM flower, blossom flower ; blossom *buŋa *b > *ɓ *u > o in Meto #ɓuŋɡa Plants, plant parts buna-k (J:64) buna-ʔ buna-k buna-ʔ buna=na buna-ʔ buna-k ɓuna-k buna-ʔ ɓuna-ʔ fu/bona|ʔ fu/bona|ʔ, fua_bona|ʔ buŋaʔ funan (Mo:37) 123 *ɓuni PRM Cassia tree, kinds of legume trees Cassia species Plants, tree, plant taxon bu~buni_hedu {2} bu~buni doo lutu (J:65) bu~buni_hedu bu~buni_hedu bu~buni lama {2} bu~buni lutu {3} bu~buni sela-ʔ bu~buni_hedu ɓuni, ɓu~ɓuni_mali bu~buni_meluʔ ɓuni_meruʔ ɓu~ɓuni buni buni (M:90) vuni Hawu-Dhao 124 *ɓunda Rote fat bellied fat bellied *buntər ‘distended, inflated (of the belly)’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) give a host of semantically and formally similar reconstructions some of which they posit as doublets and some of which they mark as ‘disjuncts’: *buntəR ‘round’, *bə(n)tur ‘glutted, sated; swollen (of the belly)’, *bə(n)tuR ‘glutted, sated; swollen (of the belly)’, *buntuʔ ‘bloated, swollen (of the belly)’, *buntuD ‘swollen, distended, of the belly’, *buntuR ‘bloated, swollen’, and *bu(n)tu ‘bloated’. It seems extremely likely that several of these forms are spurious and we are dealing with cases of irregular sound change. Manggarai and Rembong forms are given as evidence for multiple reconstructions and are the only witnesses from Wallacea. *ə > *a (expect *ə > e in nRote) *b > *ɓ; *nt > *nd (expect *t) Body, torso buna_tei-k {2} iʔa_buna-k (J:64) buna_tei-ʔ buna_tei-ʔ bunda_tei-ʔ ɓunda_tei-k bunda~bunda 125 *ɓusa Rote dog dog possibly connected with PWMP *musaŋ ‘civet’ or Dutch poes [puːs] ‘cat’ Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon busa (J:65) busa busa busa busa busa busa ɓusa busa ɓusa ɓusa busa (Mo:19) busa ETimor, Flores, CTimor 126 *ɓusu Rote bow for cleaning cotton bow, cotton ; clean cotton *busuR ‘hunting bow’ *b > *ɓ Clothing and grooming busu {2} bu~busu-k (J:65) busu busu busu busu busu ɓusu busu {2} bu~busu-t {2} ɓu~ɓusu-t fusu (Mo:38) 127 *daa *daa-k PRM blood blood *daRaq Body, internal organs daa-k (J:66) daa-ʔ daa-k daa-ʔ daa-ʔ daa-ʔ daa-k ɗaa-k laa-ʔ raa-ʔ naa|ʔ naa|ʔ naa|ʔ (M:338) naa|ʔ dala raa-n (Mo:159) rara(n) (dJ:135) rara laa-t 128 *dae PRM soil, land, earth ground ; land ; earth ; soil *daRəq ‘soil, probably clay’ *e > i in Meto with additional subsequent irregularities in the Meto vowels regular *ə > e /_q# Physical world dae (J:68) dae dae dae dae dae ɗae lae rae nain {2} nai raʔe naiʤan (M:342) nian nain nain naiʤan naiʤaan dale rai (Mo:158) ra(ra), rare (dJ:134) °rai 129 *daem nRM termites termites Creatures, bugs, insects, creature taxon (ʔ)ana/dae (J:12) hana/dae (ʔ)ana/dae (ʔ)ana/dae ʔana/dae (ʔ)ana/dae (ʔ)ana/ɗae naem naem (M:347) na~naem=aa °naen 130 *dai PMeto rooster comb or wattle comb (rooster) ; wattle (rooster) *i > e in Ro'is Body, animal body took rae-n {2} iuk rae-n fo/lai-n manu lain (Mo:124) ETimor 131 *daki PRM body dirt dirt ; filth *daki ‘dirt on skin; dandruff; tartar on teeth’ k-irr. *d > r in Meto (expect n); *k > h /V_V in Meto Body, emission daʔi (J:71) daʔi daʔi da~daki daʔi daʔi ɗaʔi rai rahi lahi (M:256) dakin raʔi 132 *dalə *dalə-k PRM in, inside, feelings in ; inside ; feelings *daləm ‘in, area within, inner part of something; between; below, under; deep; mind, feelings, liver (fig.)’ Spatial relations dale-k (J:72) dale-ʔ dale-k dale-ʔ dale=na dale-ʔ dale-k ɗale-k lala-ʔ rala-ʔ nana|ʔ nana-f (M:425) naan dale laran (Mo:127) raram {2} rorom ɗara 133 *damei PRM lick lick d-2 *ei > i in Meto; *ei > oi in Rikou (possibly sporadic assimilation to previous m) The Galolen and Dadu'a forms are similar to the RM forms, but it is unclear what vowels or medial consonant a higher level reconstruction might have. Ross and Osmond (2016a:268) reconstruct POc *d(r)amʷi(s) ‘lick (intr.)’. Body, emission na-la-mei {2} mei~mei (J:354) na-la-mei na-la-mei na-la-moi na-ra-moi, na-la-moi na-la-mei na-ra-mei na-la-mei na-ra-mei n-rami lami (M:261) ETimor 134 *daru *daru-k, *ma-daru CER long, length long *adaduq *naru Spatial relations dalu-k {2} ma-dalu (J:74) dalu-ʔ dalu-k dalu-ʔ daru-ʔ dalu-k 135 *dei *dei-k Rote forehead forehead *daqih Body, head de~dei-k (J:81) de~dei-ʔ de~dei-k de~dei-ʔ de~dei-ʔ lee-ʔ ree-ʔ ree-n (Mo:160) 136 *deki CER kiss kiss d-1/2, k-7/8/9/10 *i > a in Meto (possibly influence from neka-f ‘feelings’) Jonker (1908:81) gives Loura (ISO 639-3 [lur]) diki as possibly cognate, but I have been unable to locate this form anywhere. The lack of reflexes in wRote and Meto means that the initial consonant is ambiguous between *d and *ɗ. I have tentatively reconstructed *d on the basis of the Helong reflex as this may attest borrowing from Meto or wRote in which *d > *r had taken place. The other out-comparisons provide conflicting evidence for PRM *d and *ɗ. Fehan Tetun would be consistent with PRM *ɗ but East Tetun would be consistent with PRM *d. Emotions and values deʔi (J:81) deʔi deʔi deki deʔi liki deʔi rei (Mo:160) Helong, ETimor, Flores 137 *deku PnMeto strike, knock strike ; knock ; hit k-5/6 Actions n-reku n-leku (M:266) reuk diku deku (Mo:23) Helong, ETimor 138 *deŋe PRM kapok tree kapok tree ; tree, kapok Plants, tree, plant taxon dene (J:84) dene dene dene dene dene ɗene lene rene neke neke neke (M:361) deŋen °neke riŋi Helong, ETimor, Bima 139 *deras *ka-deras PRM tree Erythrina species Erythrina species *dəpdəp Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct doublets *dəpdəp and *dapdap. The Termanu form appears as evidence for both, though the vowels are not regular from either. They would be regular from (unreconstructed) *dədap (final *ə > e in Termanu, but *a > a). *ə > *a /_(C)# *a > e in Amarasi; *d > l in Oenale (possibly sporadic dissimilation from earlier *rVr) Plants, tree, plant taxon delas (J:82) dela-ʔ dela-k dela-ʔ deras delas ɗeras lelas relas ʔ|nenes (M:362) kdela 140 *dete PMeto Blackboard tree Alstonia scholaris blackboard tree ; |ui{Alstonia scholaris} *ditaq *i > *e *d > *ɗ > *d (expect *d > *r > *l > *n) *a > e /_# in Meto The PMeto forms are probably cognate with the Tetun form, and both could be derived from earlier **ɗətəq which would require irregular PMP *d > *ɗ and *i > *ə. However, unless the Waima'a form is a borrowing from Tetun, it indicates that Tetun o is from earlier *o (*ə > e in Waima'a). Despite the phonological problems in explaining the Meto, Tetun and Waima'a forms, they are too similar (and furthermore too similar to PMP *ditaq) to be ignored. Plants, tree, plant taxon rete rete lete (M:271) (k)doti (Mo:27, 104) doti-buto, doti 141 *dii₁ *na-mba-dii Rote stand stand *diRi *i > e in nRote (sporadic medial lowering before *R ?) *dii₂ Spatial relations na-pa-dei-ʔ {2} na-pa-de-dei (J:80f) na-pa-dei-ʔ {2} na-pa-de~dei-ʔ na-pa-dei-k {2} na-pa-de~dei na-pa-dei-ʔ {2} na-pa-de~dei na-pa-dei-ʔ {2} na-pa-de~dei na-pa-dei-ʔ na-mpa-dei-k {2} na-mpa-de~dei na-mba-ɗei-k {2} na-mba-ɗe~ɗei na-mba-lii-ʔ na-mba-rii-ʔ dili harii (Mo:78) 142 *dii₂ PRM house post post ; pillar ; pole ; house post *hadiRi *dii₁ House dii (J:86) dii dii dii dii dii ɗii lii rii nii nii (M:367) hdiin rii(n) (Mo:161) gerii agarii 143 *diʔu PMeto chase, chase away chase Given that Kemak has both /r/ and /l/, the Kemak form is most likely a borrowing from a variety of Meto in which PMeto *d > *r > l. Motion n-riʔu n-riʔu n-liʔu (M:279) liʔu CTimor 144 *dindi PRM wall made of dried palm leaf stems wall *diŋdiŋ ‘wall of a house; partition off’ *d > l in Lole (expect d) House dini (J:88) dindi diri lindi li~lindi ri~rindi ʔ|niki-t {2} (M:369) na~niki didin (Mo:25) 145 *diu *na-diu PRM bathe bathe *diRus Body na-diu (J:90) na-diu na-diu na-diu na-diu na-diu na-ɗiu na-liu na-riu na-niu na-niu na-niu diu hariis (Mo:78) 146 *domi PMeto love, like love ; like Ross and Osmond (2016b:545) reconstruct POc *drom-i (from PMP *dəmdəm) ‘think, worry; love, be sorry for, long for’, but the similarity between this form and the PMeto form may be chance. Emotions and values n-romi n-romi n-lomi (M:285) hadomi (Mo:43) domi adomi ETimor, CTimor 147 *doo *doo-k PRM leaf leaf *dahun *VV-k > *VVʔ > VʔV in Amarasi (perceptual metathesis) Plants, plant parts doo-k (J:92) doo-ʔ doo-k doo-ʔ doo=na doo-ʔ doo-k ɗoo-k loo-ʔ roo-ʔ noʔo noʔo, noo-f nooʔ (M:375) noʔo-k, noo-n roon (dJ:136) 148 *dua PRM two two *duha Quantity dua (J:103) dua dua dua dua dua ɗua lua rua nua nua nua (M:388) nua nuga nuban dua rua (Mo:162) woroʔo 149 *dui₁ *dui-k PRM bone bone *duRi ‘thorn, splinter, fish bone’ Helong retains the meaning ‘thorn’. Body, internal organs dui-k (J:106) dui-ʔ dui-k dui-ʔ dui-ʔ dui-ʔ dui-k ɗui-k lui-ʔ rui-ʔ nui-f nui-f nui-f (M:390) nui-f nui-f duliʔ rui-n (Mo:162) rurin (dJ:136) ruri {2} rurna lui-t 150 *dui₂ Rote dugong dugong *duyuŋ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) posit PCEMP *ruyuŋ, but initial *r cannot regularly account for the PRM form or Helong duiŋ. d-2 Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon lui-k (J:332) lui-ʔ lui-k lui-ʔ rui-ʔ lui-k rui-k lui-ʔ rui-ʔ lui duiŋ 151 *duman PRM some some ; few ; empty d-2 Jonker (1908) gives ruma as being found in Seram and Ambon, but I have been unable to track down his source. Quantity luma (J:333) luma luma luma ruma luma ruma luma ruma rumun ruman {2} ruum luman (M:292) ruman ruman ruma (Mo:162) ETimor 152 *dupi PnMeto wall wall **dumbi pre-Meto House krupit, rupit klupit, lupit, klipi, klipit (M:218,369) rupi SW Maluku 153 *ɗada PRM warm near a fire warm (v.) ; roast *daŋdaŋ ‘warm oneself or something near a fire; heat or dry near a fire’ d-2 *d > *ɗ (expect *d) Physical world, fire dala {2} dala haʔi (J:72) dala dala dala dara dala ɗara ɗala ɗara n-rara n-rara n-lala (M:259) malalaʔ 154 *ɗade PRM basil basil d-2 *a > e in Meto; *d > r in Amarasi antepenultimate vowel reduction in most Rote Plants, edible dala_dae, dale_dae (J:72) dali_dai dara_dae dala_dai ɗara_ɗae ɗale_mbake ɗare_ɗae ɗare to/rere to/rere to/lene, to/nene (M:569) to/nena-l n.a. (daka-muni) 155 *ɗafu₁ *ka-ɗafu PRM useless, waste useless Helong indicates earlier medial *b. Sense perception ka|dafu-k {2} na-ka-da~dafu (J:70) ka|dafu-ʔ ka|dafu-k ka|dafu-ʔ ka|dafu-ʔ ka|dafu-k ka|ɗafu-k ka|ɗafu-ʔ ka|ɗafu-ʔ k|rafun (M:255) dabun (k)rahuk (Mo:158) Helong, ETimor 156 *ɗafu₂ *ɗafu~ɗafu PRM chaotic, random chaotic ; random Emotions and values dafu~dafu (J:69) dafu~dafu dafu~dafu dafu~dafu dafu~dafu dafu~dafu ɗafu~ɗafu ɗafu~ɗafu ɗafu~ɗafu rafuʔ~rafuʔ lafuʔ~lafuʔ (M:255) da~dahut, dahut~dahut rahuk {2} rahun {3} rahu~rahun (Mo:158) Helong, ETimor 157 *ɗai₁ *na-ɗai PRM store, put inside put Spatial relations na-dai (J:71) na-dai na-dai na-dai na-dai na-dai na-ɗai na-ɗai na-ɗai na-ɗai na-rai na-lai rai (Mo:158) rai ETimor 158 *ɗai₂ Rote reach, arrive at reach ; arrive Motion dai (J:70) dai dai dai dai dai ɗai ɗai ɗai ɗai Hawu-Dhao 159 *ɗalan PRM path way ; course ; road ; path *zalan Motion, buildings dala-k (J:72) dala-ʔ dala-k dala-ʔ dala-ʔ dala-k ɗala-k ɗala-ʔ ɗala-ʔ ɗala-ʔ ranan ranan lalan (M:259) ranan lanan lalan dalan (Mo:22) sala(n) (dJ:136) kalla ruʄara ʄara 160 *ɗama PRM resin, gum, plaster resin ; gum ; plaster ; concrete *damaR ‘resin or gum exuded by certain trees, notably of the genera Shorea and Hopea; resinous torch; resinous tree’ *d > *ɗ (expect *d) *a > e /_# in Meto If this is a borrowing (from Malay damar or similar), then it is an early borrowing as final *a > e in Meto does not otherwise occur in loans. Plants, plant parts dama (J:74) dama dama dama dama dama ɗama ɗama ɗama ɗama rameʔ {2} n-rame °dame 161 *ɗano Rote lake lake *danaw *d > *ɗ (expect *d) possibly a borrowing from Malay danau or similar Physical world, water dano (J:75) dano dano dano dano dano ɗano ɗano ɗano 162 *ɗaŋɡa₁ PRM step over step over ; cross possibly connected with PMP *laŋkaq Motion daŋa (J:75) daŋa daŋa daŋa daka daŋɡa ɗaŋɡa ɗaŋɡa ɗaŋɡa n-raka, n-rakan n-laka (M:256) 163 *ɗaŋɡa₂ PwRM hand span span *zaŋkal PWMP. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) also reconstruct PMP *zaŋan ‘hand span’. Spatial relations ɗaŋɡa n-raka {2} raka-t hae-n laka-n {2} laka-n (M:256) daŋa 164 *ɗasi nRM discussion, speech matter ; affair ; discussion ; speech Speech and language dasi {2} dasi-k (J:76) ɗasi rasi rasi lasi (M:263) rasi dasi Helong 165 *ɗee PRM subordinating particle then ; which ; so Cognition dee (J:76) dee dee dee dee dee ɗee ɗee ɗee ɗe heʔ reʔ leʔ (M:264) on roʔ ʄe Hawu-Dhao 166 *ɗeha Rote speak speak Speech and language deʔa {2} de~deʔa-k (J:79) deʔa {2} de~deʔa-ʔ deʔa {2} de~deʔa-k dea {2} de~dea-ʔ de~dea dea {2} de~dea-ʔ deʔa {2} de~deʔa-k ɗeʔa {2} ɗe~ɗeʔa-k {2} ɗe~ɗea-t {2} ɗe~ɗea-t dehet {2} nahdehe deʔan dehan (Mo:23) Helong, ETimor 167 *ɗeke *ɗeke-k Rote kernel, pip of fruit pip ; seed k-7 Plants, plant parts deʔe-k (J:80) deʔe-ʔ deʔe-k deke-ʔ deke-ʔ deʔe-k ɗeʔe-k ɗeke-ʔ ɗeke-ʔ ai tahan dikin (Mo:2) ETimor 168 *ɗeʔu PwRM sacred, awe inspiring, awful, bad sacred ; bad ; broken Social and political relations, religion and belief ɗeʔu reʔu {2} reʔuf {3} n-reʔu leʔu (M:272) na-mreuʔ 169 *ɗele PRM Job’s tears Coix lachryma-jobi Job’s tears *zəlay Plants, edible plants, crops dele (J:82) dele dele dele dele dele ɗele ɗele ɗele °sone °sone °sone (M:513) sele sole {2} sole fatun 170 *ɗeli CERM tendril, vine tendril ; vine Plants, plant parts deli (J:83) uut k|reni|ʔ k|reni|ʔ 171 *ɗene nRM field, garden field ; garden *ɗ > r ~ l in Rikou and Bilbaa for the second sense Plants, edible plants, crops na-dene (J:84) na-dene na-dene na-dene {2} lene na-dene {2} rene na-dene na-ɗene rene rene lele (M:267) rene lene lele-l 172 *ɗenu *na-ɗenu PRM order, command order ; command Social and political relations na-denu (J:84) na-denu na-denu na-denu na-denu na-denu na-ɗenu ɗenu ɗenu n-renu n-lelu (M:268) reun n-lenu donu CTimor 173 *ɗere Rote beat a drum beat (drum) Actions dele labu (J:82) dele dele dere de~dele ɗere ɗele ɗere dele dere (Mo:24) ɗere Helong, ETimor, Hawu-Dhao 174 *ɗero *ka-ɗero PRM citrus citrus ; lemon ; orange (fruit) Ultimately connected with Malay jeruk [ʤeruʔ] or a related form, but *l > n in Meto indicates this was an early borrowing. Plants, tree, plant taxon delo (J:83) delo delo dero dero munde delo ɗelo ɗelo-ʔ ɗero reno|ʔ ʔ|reno|ʔ (M:268) reno|ʔ ʔ|lelo|ʔ derok (Mo:24) ETimor 175 *ɗeta Rote dip, dunk dip Motion deta (J:85) deta deta deta deta deta ɗeta ɗetaʔ ɗeta ketəɗa (On:33) Hawu-Dhao, Sumba 176 *ɗeu Rote make a fire, strike up a fire with a fire lighter fire, make Physical world, fire deu (J:85) deu deu deu deu deu ɗeu ɗeu ɗeu ɗeu Hawu-Dhao 177 *ɗəma PRM deep deep ; drown *ɗ > r in Dela (expect ɗ); *ə > o in Dela Spatial relations ma-dema {2} na-ma-dema {3} dema-k {4} na-dema (J:83) ma-dema ma-dema ma-dema ma-dema ma-dema ma-ɗema ma-ɗema ma-ɗema roma-ʔ n-rema n-lema (M:268) merəma Hawu-Dhao, Flores 178 *ɗəmbə PRM dip into dip *ə > o in Rote Motion dope (J:101) dope dope dope dompe ɗombe ɗombo na-repaʔ (M:270) dopon Helong 179 *ɗii₁ *ka-ɗii PwRM left (side) left (side) ; north *di-wiRi combination of *di ‘locative case marker’ and *wiRi ‘left side or direction’. *kii Spatial relations ɗii ɗii-ʔ ʔ|rii ʔ|lii (M:273) kliu mariri Helong, SW Maluku 180 *ɗii₂ PRM whinny whinny onomatopoeia Creatures na-ka-dii (J:86) na-ka-dii na-ka-dii na-ka-dii na-dii na-ka-dii na-ka-ɗii na-ʔa-ɗii na-ʔa-ɗii eku_lii, euk_rii 181 *ɗiki PRM small small ; child *dikit ‘little, few, small in amount’ k-7 *d > *ɗ (expect *d) *ɗ > h in Dengka Spatial relations ka-diʔi (J:86) ka-diʔi ka-diʔi ka-ɗiʔi ana_hiki-ʔ ana_ɗiki-ʔ ana_ɗiki-ʔ {2} ana_hiki-ʔ riʔi|t {2} riʔ/anaʔ {3} riʔ/feto {4} riʔ/mone liʔa|t {2} liʔ/mone {3} liʔ/feto (M:273) kiʔik (Mo:107) iki ʕiki 182 *ɗila₁ *ɗila-k CER wing wing *liɗa Body, animal body dila-ʔ dila-ʔ dila-ʔ kdilaʔ, klilaʔ dilaʔ dila/paan Helong, CTimor 183 *ɗila₂ Rote shine, glitter shine ; glitter *dilap ‘sparkle, shine’ *d > *ɗ Sense perception na-ŋa-dila {2} dila~dila (J:87) na-ŋa-dila na-ŋa-dila na-ŋa-dila na-ka-dila na-ŋɡa-dila na-ŋɡa-ɗilak na-ʔa-ɗilaʔ 184 *ɗilah PRM bael, wood apple Aegle marmelos |ui{Aegle marmelos} The designation was almost certainly a native tree, probably the bael/wood apple (|ui{Aegle marmelos}), which has fruit similar to the pomegranate. The pomegranate was then classified as a sub-type of this tree and eventually took over the meaning entirely. Plants, tree, plant taxon dila-k {2} dila dae loo-k (J:87) dila-ʔ dila-k dila(-ʔ) dila(-ʔ) dila boi-k ɗila-k ɗila ɗila rinah rinah {2} riin fui lilah {2} liil kase, lila kase (M:275) rinah liin hau {2} liin kase dila ai dila {2} ai dila tukun, ai dila fatuk (Mo:2, 25) kai dile wai dila dila ETimor, SW Maluku, CTimor 185 *ɗio *ɗio-t PRM crushed grain grain, crushed Plants, edible plants, crops di~dio-k {2} dio-k (J:89) di~dio-ʔ {2} dio-ʔ kadio-k {2} dio-k kadio-ʔ {2} dio-ʔ {2} dio-ʔ di~dio-k {2} dio-k ɗi~ɗio-k {2} ɗio-k ɗi~ɗio-ʔ {2} ɗio-t ɗi~ɗio-ʔ {2} ɗio-t reo|t leo|t (M:270) lio|t 186 *ɗitə PRM gum, resin, glue, sticky, stick to gum ; resin ; sticky ; stick to *ə > a in Ba'a *ə > e /σ_# in wRote (perhaps *ə > *a > e /_#) Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PAN *ditəq ‘sticky substance’ on the basis of the Termanu reflex and Amis ditaʔ ‘a lump of clay for making pottery; clay; a type of soil’. Unless more evidence is forthcoming, I do not find this reconstruction convincing. They also reconstruct PMP *litəq ‘sap of a tree or plant’ on the basis of much better evidence, though this reconstruction cannot account regularly for the forms given here. Plants, plant parts di~dite {2} na-ka-dite (J:89) di~dite di~dite di~dite di~dita ɗi~ɗite ɗite ɗite n-rita {2} a-rita-s n-liit {2} (M:278) °litas ritan {2} ha-ritan (Mo:161;78) krite ETimor 187 *ɗoa PRM burp, belch burp ; belch ; vomit glottal stop insertion in Meto Body, emission doa (J:92) doa doa doa doa doa ɗoa ɗoa ɗoa ɗoa n-roʔa n-roʔa n-looʔ (M:280) roaʔ deaŋ Helong 188 *ɗoɗo PRM kill by stabbing kill ; stab *dodok ‘pierce, stab’ PCMP *d > *ɗ /#_; *d > *ɗ /V_V Actions dodo (J:94) dodo dodo dodo ɗoɗo ɗoɗo n-roro n-roro n-lolo (M:284) roor dodo 189 *ɗoi PRM carry on shoulder with pole carry Motion na-la-doi (J:95) na-la-doi na-ŋa-doi na-ka-doi doi na-la-ɗoi na-ŋɡa-ɗoi ɗoi n-roi n-loi (M:282) roi ɗui dui, ɗui Flores, Hawu-Dhao 190 *ɗoka *ɗoka_dalə-k Rote knee cavity knee cavity k-5 Perhaps related to PMP *dəkuk ‘bow, bend downward’, though this requires irr. *d > *ɗ and *ə > *o. Body, limbs, legs doka_dale(-k) (J:96) loka_dale-ʔ doka_dale-k doka_dale-k ɗoka_ɗale-k ɗoka_rala-ʔ kerəki (On:188) Hawu-Dhao, Sumba 191 *ɗoki *ɗo~ɗoki Rote desire desire k-5ʹ (*k > Ø in Rikou; expect ʔ or k, and *k > ʔ in Dengka; expect *k = k) Emotions and values do~doki (J:97) do~doki do~doki do~doi, (do~doʔi ?) do~doki ɗo~ɗoki ɗo~ɗoʔi ɗo~ɗoki ɗuki Hawu-Dhao 192 *ɗoʔi PRM prise out, lever out lever Spatial relations doʔi (J:96) doʔi doʔi doʔi ɗoʔi ɗoʔi ɗoʔi n-roʔe loʔi (M:282) roʔi tuki (On:449) Helong, Flores, Sumba 193 *ɗole *ɗole-k nRM brains, marrow brains ; marrow Body, internal organs do~dole-k {2} laŋa do~dole-k {3} mata do~dole-k {4} na-do~dole (J:98) do~dole-ʔ do~dole-k do~dole-ʔ do~dole-ʔ do~dole-k ɗo~ɗole-k ro͡ene-f rone-f {2} maat roneʔ lole-f (M:283) rone-f lone-f lone-f dole-n (Mo:26) ɗole ETimor, Hawu-Dhao 194 *ɗolu PRM draw water, lower, fish with a rod draw water ; lower ; fish (v.) Warfare and hunting dolu (J:99) dolu dolu dolu dolu dolu ɗolu ɗolu ɗolu {2} an-lolu (M:284) ɗulu (On:41) Hawu-Dhao, Sumba 195 *ɗombe Rote knife knife #kopi Warfare and hunting dope (J:101) dope dope dope dope dompe ɗombe ɗombe ɗombe ʄobe Flores, Hawu-Dhao 196 *ɗoo *ka-ɗoo PRM far, distant far ; distant *zauq Spatial relations doo-k (J:90) doo-ʔ doo-k doo-ʔ doo-ʔ doo-k ɗoo-k ɗoo-ʔ ɗoo-ʔ na-ʔ|roo na-ʔ|roo ʔ|loo (M:280) roo na-k|loo-g (k)dook {2} dodook (Mo:27, 104;26) soo (dJ:137) koʔu ʄəu kaʄəu 197 *ɗosa Rote vinegar vinegar Food and drink dosa {2} na-ka-do~dosa (J:102) dosa dosa dosa ɗosa ɗosa ɗosa ei do kedoha Hawu-Dhao 198 *ɗoto *na-ka-ɗoto PRM thunder, make a loud noise thunder ; noise ; sound Physical world, weather na-ka-doto {2} doto~doto (J:102) na-ka-doto na-ka-doto na-ka-doto na-doto na-ka-doto na-ka-ɗoto na-ʔa-ɗoto na-ʔa-ɗoto na-ʔ|roto {2} ʔ|roto-s na-ʔ|loto (M:287) na-ʔroot loto ɗoro Helong, Hawu-Dhao 199 *ɗuɗi PRM stoop, bow stoop ; crouch ; bow (v.) Motion dudi (J:105) dudi dudi dudi dudi dudi ɗuɗi ɗuɗi ɗuɗi na-ʔruriʔ na-ʔruriʔ (M:291) 200 *ɗuɗu Rote tinder, oakum tinder ; oakum Physical world, fire dudu (J:105) dudu dudu dudu dudu dudu ɗuɗu ɗuɗu ɗuɗu dudu duduk (Mo:28) (On:130) nduru Helong, ETimor, Flores, Bima, Sumba, Sulawesi 201 *ɗula PRM engrave, tattoo, pattern engrave ; tattoo ; pattern ; carve Actions dula {2} dula-k (J:106) dula dula dula dula dula ɗula ɗula ɗula ɗula-ʔ runu-t n-runa {2} runa-t lula {2} lula-t (M:291) ruan luna {2} luna-t luna {2} luna-t dula {2} hdulat Helong 202 *ɗuŋɡu Rote insert insert Spatial relations duŋu (J:107) duŋu duŋu duŋu duku duŋɡu ɗuŋɡu ɗuŋɡu ɗuŋɡu duŋun Helong 203 *eɗa PRM ladder, stairs ladder ; stairs *haRəzan ‘notched log ladder’ Ø > ʔ /#_ in Dela-Oenale House eda-k {2} heda_huu-k (J:108, 167) eda {2} heda_huu-ʔ eda-k {2} heda_huu-k eda eda-k {2} heda_huu-k eɗa-k {2} heɗa_huu-ʔ (ʔ)e~(ʔ)eɗa-ʔ {2} (ʔ)e~(ʔ)eɗa_huu-ʔ ʔe~ʔeɗa-ʔ ʔe~ʔeɗa-ʔ era|ʔ, era|k ela|k (M:98) elan oda(n) (Mo:156) rokon 204 *ee PwRM 3SG.ACC him ; her Possibly connected with PRM *ia ‘this, here’ (from PMP *ia), though this is retained with a demonstrative meaning in all branches of Rote-Meto. People, pronouns ee, nee ee, nee ee ═ee {2} =nee 205 *ei *ei-k Rote foot, leg foot ; leg *qaqay *ay > *i; *a > *e (sporadic assimilation) *hae Body, limbs, legs ei-k (J:109) ei-ʔ ei-k ei-ʔ ei-ʔ ei-ʔ ei-k ei-k ei-ʔ ei-ʔ ei-ʔ ii-n ii-n ai-n (Mo:3) ei-n ai-t 206 *eki Rote shout, cry out shout ; cry out *əkit ‘squeak, shriek’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) give the Termanu form as evidence for both *əkit and the ‘disjunct’ *ə(ŋ)kik. The Termanu form is their only eastern evidence for *ə(ŋ)kik. k-5 Ø > h /#_Vʔ in Rikou Speech and language eki (J:110) eki eki eki heʔi eki eki 207 *eko Rote shake, sift sift ; shake k-5/6ʹ (Dengka ʔ Dela k correspondence, expect either k in both for pattern 5, or ʔ in both for pattern 6) Food and drink (ʔ)e~(ʔ)eko (J:110f) (ʔ)eko (ʔ)eko (ʔ)eko ʔeʔo (ʔ)eko (ʔ)eko eʔo eko keko keku (Mo:105) keriʄi-kerəgu Helong, ETimor, Flores, Hawu-Dhao 208 *ekut PRM palm fibres, woven ring from palm fibres fibres k-6 *u > e in Rote I have reconstructed final *u rather than *e as irr. *u > e in Rote can be motivated as an instance of sporadic vowel assimilation, while alternate *e > u in Meto would be unmotivated. Plants, tree, palm, plant parts eke-k {2} eke_naa-k (J:110) eke-ʔ {2} eke_naa-ʔ eke-k {2} eke_naa-k eke-ʔ {2} heke/na-ʔ eke-ʔ {2} ? henaa-ʔ eke-k {2} heke/naa-k eke-k {2} aki/naa-k eʔe-t eʔe-t eku|t eku|t (M:98) eket ekat (Mo:29) Helong, ETimor 209 *ela₁ PRM already, marker of perfective aspect already *l > n in wRote; *Ø > h in Ro'is Amarasi Time la (J:260) ela ena, ela, la ena, en, na ena ena ═hena ═ena ═een (M:101) ela əla ele, le Helong, Hawu-Dhao 210 *ela₂ PwRM run, flee run ; flee diphthongisation *e > ae in most Meto Motion n-ela n-ela n-ela-ʔ n-aena n-aena n-aen (M:10) n-ʔean 211 *ele nRM yonder, there there *e > Ø in Amarasi Spatial relations ele (J:113) ele ele ele ele ele ele nee nee, əne Hawu-Dhao 212 *elus PRM rainbow rainbow Physical world, sky elus (J:113) elu-ʔ elu-ʔ elu-ʔ elus elus elus elus elus elus e͡unus enus enus (M:102) euns=aa 213 *ena Rote property, possession possess ; own ; have Ø > ʔ /#_ in Dela-Oenale Possession ena-na {2} na-ena ena (ʔ)ena ʔena ʔena {2} ma-ʔena-ʔ nena Helong 214 *eni PwRM third person he ; she ; they People, pronouns eni eni eni ═eni 215 *eno *eno-k nRM way, path way ; path ; road ; gate ; door *qənuR ‘animal path, trail’ *u > *o /_*R# Motion, buildings eno-k {2} na-eno (J:114) eno-ʔ eno-k eno-ʔ eno-ʔ eno-k eno|ʔ {2} eno_sneer eno|ʔ (M:101) enon 216 *endən PRM soak soak *(R)ədəm Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct *ədəm with ‘disjunct’ *Rədəm. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) give Termanu ene and Mongondow onop as evidence for *əñəp ‘sunken, submerged’. This connection is spurious as the other Rote reflexes all point to medial *nd. *d > *nd *ə > *e /_# in second Oenale form (expect *ə > a, possibly *ə > *a > e) diphthongisation *ə > (*e) > ae in Meto; Ø > ʔ /#_ in Dela-Oenale The nasal-stop cluster reconstructed for PRM is also supported by Malay rəndam. *lende Physical world, water ene {2} oe ma-na|ene-k (J:114) ene ene ene {2} oe=a ene enden ende ere ene ende ende (ʔ)enda ʔenda {2} ende~ende ʔenda na-ʔaeraʔ na-ʔaekaʔ (M:9) neneŋ 217 *esa PRM one one *əsa Quantity esa (J:115) esa esa esa esa esa esa esa esa esa, es, sa {2} ka-esan ═esa ═esa ═ees (M:103) eas {2} =ees esa 218 *esak PRM day after tomorrow tomorrow, day after ; day after tomorrow ; yesterday, day before ; day before yesterday Final *k has been reanalysed in most Rote forms as the nominal suffix *-k. *afi, *beni Time bina_esa-k {2} (ndee) bina_esa-k=a (J:50) bina_esa-ʔ {2} bina_esak=a bina_esa-k {2} bina_esa-k=a bin/esa-ʔ {2} bin/esak=a bina_esa-ʔ {2} bina_esa-ʔ=a bina_esa-k {2} bina_esa-k=a ɓin/esa-k feni_esa-ʔ feni_esa-ʔ esah (M:103) 219 *eti PRM come by, go by go ; come *t > ʔ /V_V in Termanu Motion n-eʔi (J:387) n-eti n-eti eti n-eti n-eiti eti (M:105) 220 *eto *eto-ʔ PwRote bran bran ; rice husk ‘rice husk, rice bran’ Ø > ʔ /#_ in Dela-Oenale Possibly related to PMP *qəta, though this is retained as taa-ʔ in wRote. *taa₂ Plants, edible plants, crops (ʔ)eto-ʔ ʔeto-ʔ ʔeto-ʔ əto 221 *etu₁ PRM catfish catfish *t > ʔ in Keka Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon etu (J:116) eʔu etu etu etu etu etu etu etu etu etu iik etu Hawu-Dhao 222 *etu₂ PMeto therefore, that is why therefore The Meto and Tetun forms are likely borrowings, but the direction of borrowing is unclear. Cognition etu naa etun etun etuk (Mo:30) ETimor 223 *əmə 1SG *kumə, 2SG *mumə, 3SG *nemə, 2PL/1PL.EXCL *mimə, 1PL.INCL *temə, 3PL *remə PRM come come ; from *ə > a /_# in Lole and Tii; initial *m > Ø in 2SG form in Lole, Tii, and wRM; initial *m > Ø in 2PL/1PL.EXCL form in wRM With the exception of Tii and Lole, all the Nuclear Rote languages have a vowel initial root -eme which takes the expected consonantal agreement prefixes (see §2.6.5). The other languages all have irregular inflections none of which I can explain adequately at this stage. While I propose a possible account for these irregular forms here, I am not completely satisfied with it, as it requires positing several ad-hoc changes. Firstly, I have reconstructed irregular inflections to PRM as it seems simpler to posit regularisation of the paradigm between PRM and some daughter languages than to posit creation of irregular forms from an originally regular paradigm. Secondly, I propose that this root took vocalic prefixes for all forms at a stage prior to PRM and that the root was originally disyllabic **əmə. Thus, I propose pre-RM 1SG **ku-əmə, 2SG **mu-əmə, 3SG **na-əmə, 2PL/1PL.EXCL **mi-əmə, 1PL.INCL **ta-əmə, 3PL **ra-əmə. The 3SG, 3PL, and 1PL.INCL forms all show **aə > *e which is supported by four other forms (*ma-əsa > *mesa ‘alone’, *ma-qəti > *meti ‘low tide’, *baqəRu > **baəRu > *beu ‘new’, and *haRəzan > *aəzan > *eɗa ‘ladder’), though there are also three forms which attest *aə > *a (*ma-həmis > **maəmis > *mamis ‘insipid’, *mahəyaq > *mae₂ ‘shy’, *qahəlu > **qaəlu > *halu ‘pestle’). Thus, I propose, as illustrated with the 3SG form, pre-RM **na-əmə > PRM *nemə. The Nuclear Rote languages (apart from Tii and Lole) then reanalysed 3SG *nemə, 3PL remə, and 1PL.INCL *temə as containing a root *-emə and a consonantal prefix. They then regularised the paradigm by using this root and a consonantal prefix for all persons. The PRM 1SG, 2SG, and 2PL/1PL.EXCL forms are a result of **ə > Ø in the inflected forms. This follows the normal pattern for trisyllables with medial schwa and initial *i or *u, though there are only three putative examples: *binəhiq > *bini ‘seed’, *buqəni > *buni ‘ringworm’, and perhaps *quhənap > *unə ‘scale’. Thus, the complete pathway for the 2PL/1PL.EXCL form in wRM, Tii, and Lole was probably: pre-RM **mi-əmə > PRM *mimə > mima. wRM further has loss of initial *m in both this form and the 2SG form, while Tii and Lole only have loss of *m in the 2SG form. Thus, **mu-əmə > PRM *mumə > (ʔ)uma. The only explanation I can offer for initial u in Tii and Lole 3SG numa and 3PL ruma/luma is that this is due to the initial vowel of the 1SG/2SG form (ʔ)uma exerting paradigmatic pressure. While this goes against cross-linguistic norms where we expect the more common 3SG form to be the one to exert paradigmatic pressure, it finds some support from the fact that in the inflection of *əu ‘go’ in Ro'is Amarasi it is also the 1SG/2SG stem which has spread to other parts of the paradigm. Regarding the vowels of the Meto forms, apart from the Amarasi and Amfo'an forms, other known varieties of Meto show irregular vowel developments in the metathesised 1SG/2SG and 2PL/1PL.EXCL forms. These changes have three sequenced stages: (1) vowel breaking, as seen in Fatule'u 1SG/2SG **uum > aum and 2PL/1PL.EXCL **iim > aim, (2) partial assimilation, as seen in Amanatun 1SG/2SG **aum > oum, and (3) complete assimilation, as seen in Baikeno 2PL/1PL.EXCL **aim > **eim > eem. The unmetathesised forms of the 1SG/2SG and 2PL/1PL.EXCL forms in these varieties of Meto are unknown, and I cannot confidently predict what they might be. The final syllable of *əmə is possibly related to *ma(R)i with irregular *ai > *ə, but note that *ma(R)i is regularly reflected as mai in the Nuclear Rote languages. *mai Motion ─eme (J:387) ─eme ─eme ─eme ─eme ─eme ─Vma ─Vma ─Vma ─Vma ─Vma ─Vma ─Vma ─Vma ─Vma ─Vma ─Vma ─Vma 224 *əndi *n-əndi PRM bring, take bring ; take *nd > n /ə_ in Tii and Rikou Blust and Trussel (ongoing) ACD give a Minangkabau and Ngadha cognate as ‘noise’. Motion n-eni (J:388) n-eni n-eni n-eni n-eni n-eni n-eni n-eni n-endi n-endi n-endi n-eri n-eki n-eki (M:99) nini hodi (Mo:87) n-oʈi n-əti (On:342) nenti Helong, ETimor, SW Maluku, Flores, Bima, Sumba, Hawu-Dhao, CTimor 225 *əu 1SG *kuu, 2SG *muu, 3SG *neu, 1PL.INCL *teu, 2PL/1PL.EXCL *miu, 3PL *reu PRM go; dative marker: to, for go ; to ; for *u > i in wRM (for 2PL/1PL.EXCL mii) The inflection shows several irregularities which are not dissimilar to those seen in the inflection of *əmə ‘come, from’. As with that stem, I propose that these irregularities are due to this stem taking vocalic prefixes at a stage prior to PRM with subsequent loss of the root initial vowel in some cases. Similarly, for the 3SG, 3PL, and 1PL.INCL inclusive forms I propose **aə > e (e.g. **na-əu > n-eu). I have reconstructed the 1SG and 2SG forms with irregular double *uu as this is attested in all branches. Similarly, I have reconstructed the 2PL/1PL.EXCL form as *miu as this best explains the Tii, Lole, and West Rote forms. West Rote further shows irregular assimilation of the final vowel of the 2PL/1PL.EXCL form. Other varieties of Rote have regularised the 2PL/1PL.EXCL slot of the paradigm with the stem -eu. Similarly, known varieties of Nuclear Meto have regularised the entire paradigm by using the stem -eu for all persons. In Ro'is Amarasi, on the other hand, the original 1SG/2SG stem -uu has spread at the expense of -eu, which is only retained in the third person in my data. Motion ─eu (J:392f) ─eu ─eu ─eu ─eu ─eu ─Vu ─Vu ─eu/-uu/-ii ─eu/-uu/-ii ─eu/-uu/-ii ─uu/-eu n-eu n-eu 226 *fa PRM little, just, NEG no ; just Cognition fa (J:117) fa fa fa fa fa fa faa ka=…=fa fa (M:106) ve <-wa> (On:519) Helong, Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 227 *faa Rote current; flows, streams, overflows current ; flow ; overflow *bahaq ‘flood; to overflow, be in flood’ Physical world, water faa (J:116) faa faa faa faa faa faa faa fa~faa baa əi-vaa 228 *faat PRM rainy season, southwest monsoon rainy season *habaRat ‘southwest monsoon’ Physical world, weather oe faa-k, fai oe faa-k {2} ani faa-k (J:454, 118) oe faa-ʔ {2} ani faa-ʔ oe faa-k {2} ani faa-k oe faa-ʔ {2} ani faa-ʔ oe faa-ʔ {2} ani faa-ʔ oe faa-k {2} ani faa-k oe faa-k {2} ani faa-k oe faat {2} ani faat oe faat {2} ani faat oe_faat oe_haat {2} haat 229 *fado PnMeto pierce pierce Clothing and grooming faro falo, faol noniʔ {2} n-falo {3} n-falo bia {4} n-falon (M:109) fadu ETimor 230 *faɗa *na-faɗa PRM say, speak, tell, inform say ; speak ; tell ; inform *bajaq ‘know, understand; ask, inquire’ *a > e /_# in wRM The putative Meto reflexes may be chance resemblances. The semantic match is not great and they have an unexplained final consonant. Speech and language na-fada (J:118) na-fada na-fada na-fada na-fada na-fada na-faɗa, i-faɗa na-faɗe na-faɗe na-faɗe n-fareʔ {2} uab fareʔ n-falek (M:109) 231 *fae *fae-k CER kind of large lizard lizard Creatures, bugs, creature taxon ŋɡolo/fae-k (J:446) ŋɡolo/fae-ʔ lafaek (Mo:123) ETimor 232 *fai PRM day, time day ; night *waRi ‘day, sun’ *hoi Time fai (J:120f) fai fai fai fai fai fai fai fai fai fai fai (M:108) fai bai(n) {2} bai-bain, uai-uain {3} bai(n)_hira, uai_hira(k) (Mo:8, 191) 233 *faka₁ Rote split in half split ; divide *bakaq ‘spread apart, split’ k-8/9 *faka₂, *fekə, *paha Actions faʔa (J:118) faʔa faka faʔa faʔa faʔa faʔa faʔa bəka 234 *faka₂ *faka-k Rote split in ground, crack in ground split ; crack *bakaq ‘spread apart, split’ k-5 *faka₁, *fekə, *paha Physical world faka-k (J:122) faka-ʔ faka-k faka-ʔ faka-ʔ faka-k faka-k faka-ʔ fa~faka-ʔ 235 *fake PRM petai tree; kind of tree with pods Parkia speciosa |ui{Parkia speciosa} k-8ʹ (*k > Ø in Bilbaa; expect *k = k) Plants, tree, plant taxon fa~faʔe (J:120) fa~faʔe fa~faʔe fa~fae fa~fake fa~faʔe fa~faʔe fa~faʔe fa~faʔe fae fae (M:106) kbaki fae matan metan (Mo:30) (On:199) Helong, ETimor, Sumba 236 *fakur PRM pull out pull out k-10 *u > i in Meto Spatial relations faʔu (J:126) faʔu faku faʔu faʔu na-ʔa-fa~faʔu na-ʔa-fa~faʔur n-faki n-faki (M:109) 237 *fali Rote help, stand with help ; stand with *baliw₁ ‘dual division, moiety = cluster (a) answer, oppose, opposite side or part; partner, friend, enemy’ Social and political relations fali (J:122) fali fali fali fali fali fali fali fali 238 *falu PRM eight eight *walu *u > a in Ro'is Amarasi Quantity falu (J:124) falu falu falu falu falu falu falu falu fana fanu fanu (M:111) falu palu walu ualu (Mo:192) balu 239 *fandi PRM cut cut **panti pre-RM *nd > n in Meto Jonker (1908:125) also gives ‘Bul.’ wanti ‘chop down’, pati ‘chop’. I have been unable to figure out which language/dialect ‘Bul.’ refers to. Actions fani (J:125) fani fani fani fandi fani fani (M:110) fani fati {2} manti Bima 240 *fandu *fandu-k PRM dry season dry season Physical world, weather fanu-k (J:125) fanu-ʔ fanu-k fanu-ʔ fai fandu-ʔ fandu-ʔ faru-ʔ fanu-k fandu-k fandu-ʔ fandu-ʔ faur/nais fauk/nais fauk/nais (M:288) fak/nais fauk/ʔais vəru vadu (On:525) Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 241 *fanduun PRM star star *bituqən *ə > *u (sporadic assimilation); *t > *nd (Several other languages show a medial nt cluster, such as Sikule bintun ‘star’ (Kähler 1959:17, Barrier Islands ISO 693-3 [skh]), or Pazeh bintun (Blust 1999:361, Taiwan, ISO 693-3 uun), and it is likely that PRM *nd developed from earlier *nt.) consonant metathesis *fk > kf in some Meto The change *i > *a is due to the general reduction of ante-penultimate syllables seen also, for instance in reflexes of *sumaŋəd > *sumanə. *nd follows the pattern for word initial *nd in Rote. Physical world, sky, space nduu-k (J:425) nduu-ʔ luu-k luu-ʔ fanduu-ʔ ruu-ʔ ruu-ʔ nduu-k nduu-k nduu-k nduu-ʔ nduu-ʔ fruun kfuun kfuun, fkuun (M:204) fkuun bduun duun fitu(n) (Mo:15) tuu (dJ:140) 242 *faŋɡa *faŋɡa-k Rote nail nail Body, limbs faŋa-k (J:124) faŋa-ʔ faŋa-k faŋa-ʔ faka-ʔ faŋɡa-k faŋɡa-k faŋɡa-k faŋɡa-ʔ faŋɡa-ʔ Maluku 243 *farəndən nRM thoughts, mind, feelings, hope thoughts ; mind ; feelings ; hope ; love ; kiss (nose) ; remember *r > (*l) > n in Korbafo consonant metathesis *rVnd > *ndVr in Termanu, Ba'a, and Korbafo *nd > n /ə_ in Rikou and Oepao It is questionable whether the required semantic shift from ‘think, be mindful’ in Rote to ‘hope’ in Meto is a likely one. Cognition na-fa-ndele (J:417) na-fa-ndene na-fa-lene na-fa-lene na-fa-rene na-fa-re~rene na-fa-ndele ni-fi-lende na-fa-rende {2} nere-f {4} ma-nere-t na-fneka, na-fnekan {2} neka-f {3} n-neka {4} ma-neka-t na-fnekan {2} neka-n {3} n-ma-neka {4} ma-neka-t (M:122) 244 *fase PRM wash (clothes) wash *basəq ‘wet; wash clothes’ consonant metathesis *fVs > sVf in all instances except Amfo'an and Timaus regular *ə > e /_q# Actions safe (J:511) safe safe safe safe safe safe safe safe n-safe n-safe safe (M:111,465) n-fase n-fasa base fasi, fase (Mo:32) wase (dJ:141) ɓahe 245 *fata Rote female female **bata pre-RM. Blust (1993:277) reconstructs *bat-bata ‘woman’ as evidence for a Yamdena-North Bomberai subgroup and also notes cognates in Ili'uun and Wetan (Luang cluster). People tua_fata bataʔ {2} bi/hata bata {2} bi/hata, be/hata hahata (dJ:116) Etimor, Wetar, SW Maluku 246 *fati *na-fa~fati Rote feed, give a drink to feed Food and drink na-fa~fati (J:126) na-fa~fati na-fa~fati na-fa~fati na-fa~fati na-fa~fati na-fa~fati na-ʔa-fa~fati na-ʔa-fa~fati vati Hawu-Dhao 247 *faun *ma-faun PwRM thick thick Spatial relations fau-ʔ fau-ʔ fau-ʔ {2} na-ma-fau ma|faun ma|faun n-ma|fau-b (M:113) ba~bakun Helong 248 *feɗu Rote bent through bent ; flexible *bəntuk *nt > *ɗ *ɓetu Actions fedu {2} fe~fedu (J:128) fedu fedu fedu fedu fedu feɗu feɗu feɗu 249 *fee₁ PMeto wife, woman woman ; wife *bahi ‘female, woman, wife; female of animals’ The forms fenai ‘wife of an important person’ and Kusa-Manea fa/nai ‘woman’ are historically compounds of *fee ‘wife’ + *laʔi ‘male, grandfather, king’. Despite the superficial similarity, they are not from PMP *bahi. People, kin fee {2} bi/fee fee {2} fe/nai {3} bi/fee fee {2} fe/nai {3} bi/fee-l (M:113) fee {2} fa/nai fee {2} fe/nai bi/hata bi/hata, be/hata fee-n (Mo:33) 250 *fee₂ PRM give give *bəRay Possession fee (J:127) fee fee fee fee fee fee fee fee n-fee n-fee fee (M:113) fee bele foo (Mo:35) vie 251 *fefa *fefa-f PMeto mouth (internal) mouth *bəqbəq ‘mouth, opening; speak, say’ Reconstructed with the doublet *baqbaq. Both forms are attested in the Timor region. *ə > *a /_q# (expect *e) *ɓafa₂ Body, head, mouth fefe-f fefa-f fefa-f (M:113) foha-t 252 *fei PRM open open *bəriq ‘split, tear open’ *r > Ø Spatial relations fei (J:130) fei fei fei fei fei fei fei fei n-fei fai, fei fai, fei 253 *fekə Rote separate, other separate ; other *bəkaq ‘split, crack open’ k-8 *aq > *ə (expect *a) *faka₁, *faka₂, *paha Spatial relations feʔe {2} feʔe-k (J:128) feʔe {2} feʔe-ʔ feʔe feke feke {2} feke-ʔ feʔe {2} feʔe-k feʔe {2} feʔe-k fea {2} fea-ʔ fea {2} fea-ʔ weke bəka {2} bəke 254 *feku PRM flute flute k-5 Speech and language feku (J:130) feku feku feku feku-k feku feku feku feku (M:114) feku n-feku Flores 255 *fela₁ PwRM get up, rise get up ; rise Motion fela fela n-fena n-fena n-fena (M:115) 256 *fela₂ *na-fe~fela CER spread out, flat spread out ; unroll *bəkəlaj ‘spread out, unroll (mats, etc.), open out, unfold (as the hand); wide’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PEMP *bolaj and there is also evidence for PCEMP *bəlaj. *ɓela Actions na-fe~fela (J:130) na-fe~fela na-fe~fela na-fe~fela na-fe~fela la-sa-fe~fela felar (Mo:33) 257 *felu *fe~felu-k CER bend bend *bəluk *helu, *fenu Actions fe~felu-k (J:131) 258 *femba Rote hit in general, especially with a stick hit ; beat ; strike *f > h in wRote Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct a number of similar terms the first or second syllable of which could be reconciled with this PRM reconstruction, but in no case can both syllables be regularly reconciled with *femba. Similar reconstructed terms include PAN *pəkpək, PMP *tambak, *tambək, and *sambak. Actions fepa (J:133) fepa fepa fepa fepa fempa femba femba hemba hemba hemba vəbe {2} dede vəbe Hawu-Dhao 259 *fenu PRM bend bend *bəluk *l > *n *f > p in Meto *helu, *felu Actions fenu {2} fe~felu-k (J:131) fenu fenu fenu fenu fenu fenu fenu fenu penu n-penu (M:433) 260 *fera₁ *na-fera PMeto decide, break decide ; break Probably from earlier **fenda. Actions na-fera {2} na-t|fer~fera na-feka n-feek {2} na-t|feek (M:114) 261 *fera₂ Rote landslide, ravine landslide ; ravine **fəran pre-RM *f > h in Oepao, Bilbaa and Korbafo (also Tetun) Interference/collapse with *ndefa, which is likely related with consonant metathesis. *ndefa Physical world fela {2} (fe~)fela-k (J:130) hela {2} hela-ʔ fela {2} fela-k hela hera fela {2} fela-k fera {2} fera-k, re~refa-k (fe~)fera-ʔ horun rai hourun, horun (Mo:88) werne ETimor, SW Maluku 262 *feto *feto-k PRM man’s sister, female sister ; female *bətaw ‘sister (man speaking)’ *t > ʔ /V_V for third and fourth uses in Termanu People, kin feto-k {2} tua feto {3} feʔo {4} ana feʔo-k (J:134, 132f) feto-ʔ {2} tua feto feto-k {2} tua feto feto-ʔ {2} tua feto feto-ʔ {2} tua feto feto-k {2} tua feto feto-k feto-ʔ {2} tua feto feto-ʔ {2} tua feto feto|ʔ {2} feto feto-f {2} feto (M:117) feto|ʔ bata °feto {2} °feto-n (Mo:33) 263 *fetu *ka-fetu CERM trap, snare trap ; snare Warfare and hunting fe~fetu-k (J:134) na-k|fetu {2} k|fetu-s na-k|fetu (M:203) 264 *feu *feu-k PRM in-law in-law *baqəRu ‘new, fresh; recent(ly)’ PMP *b > *f (rather than *b = *b as in the doublet *beu₁ may have been due to this term always occurring as the second member of a compound and thus intervocalic. Only used in the phrases for ‘daughter-in-law’ and ‘son-in-law’. The semantic association between ‘new’ and ‘in-law’ is connected with the fact that from someone who has just married into a family is the newest member of that kin group. *beu₁ People, kin mane_feu-k {2} feto_feu-k (J:134) mana/feu-ʔ mana/feu-k mana/feu-ʔ mana/feu-ʔ {2} feto/feu-ʔ mone_feu-k {2} feto_feu-k mone_feu-k {2} feto_feu-k mone_feu-s {2} feto_feu-s mone_feu-s {2} feto_feu-s moen feʔu, moen feu-f moen feʔu (M:117) °manhiu mane foun {2} feto foun (Mo:36) 265 *fia PRM wild taro, elephant’s ear or itching taro Alocasia species taro ; tuber *biRaq Plants, edible plants, tuber fia (Fox 1991:256) fia fia-l (M:118) fia (Mo:34) 266 *fiti₁ Rote jerk up, flip upwards with great force jerk *bitik ‘snare, noose trap; spring up suddenly, jerk up (as a fishing line or noose trap)’ *biti₂ Motion fiti-k {2} na-ka-fi~fiti-k {3} ma-ka-fi~fiti-k, ma-ka-fi~fiti ana-k {4} fiti (J:137) fiti-ʔ fiti-k fiti-ʔ fiti-k fiti-k fiti-ʔ fiti-ʔ 267 *fiti₂ Rote kick kick *bintiq ‘calf-kicking contest’ Motion fiti (J:137) fiti fiti fiti fiti fiti fiti fiti 268 *fiti₃ CERM carry something hanging from the hand carry *bitbit ‘pull at body part; hold something dangling from the fingers’ *t > ʔ in Rote and Kusa-Manea The parallel irregular sound change in both Rote and Kusa-Manea suggests a doublet at the level of PRM; *fiti and *fiʔi *bifi, *ɓiti Motion fiʔi (J:135) fiʔi fiʔi fiʔi n-fiti n-fiti (M:121) fiiʔ biʔit {2} fiʔit (Mo:14;34) tiwi ETimor, Bima 269 *foe₁ PRM white spots spots *f > p in Amarasi (also Funai Helong) The Funai Helong and Amarasi forms are probably borrowings as both have irr. *f > p. Both forms may come from Bolok Helong or Semau Helong which has undergone a *f > p sound change. Body, sickness foe-k (J:139) foe foe-k foe foe (muti/)foe-k muti/foe-k foe foe pe/muti(-s) mut/foe, met/foe poemuti Helong 270 *foe₂ CER crocodile crocodile *buqaya Through the pathway *buqaya > **buaya > **boya > **boe > *foe in which all the intermediate steps are regular. *ɓeis Creatures, bugs, creature taxon foe foe voe 271 *foe₃ PRM move, struggle move ; struggle ; turbulent Motion foe (J:139) foe foe foe foe foe foe foe foe n-foe n-foe (M:124) 272 *foʔa Rote get up, wake up get up ; wake up Motion foʔa (J:138) foʔa foʔa foa foa foʔa foʔa foʔa foa foa buka Helong 273 *foʔi PRM lever (verb), turn lever *ʔ > Ø in Termanu, Korbafo, Bokai, and Ba'a Motion foi (J:139f) foi foi foi foi foi foi foʔi foʔi n-foʔi, n-foʔe {2} ʔ-foʔi (M:125) fokit (Mo:35) vuki ETimor, Hawu-Dhao 274 *foo *kai_foo-k PRM moringa tree Moringa oleifera |ui{Moringa oleifera} *VV-k > *VVʔ > VʔV in Meto (perceptual metathesis) initial *kai probably from *kaiu ‘tree, plant, wood’ Plants, tree, plant taxon kai/foo-k, ka/foo-k (J:215) kai/foo-ʔ kai/foo-k kai_foo-ʔ ai/foo-ʔ kai/foo-k kai/foo-k ai/foo-ʔ ai/foo-ʔ ai/foo-ʔ uut hau_ʔ|foʔo uta_ʔ|foʔo (M:124) °uut hau fooʔ ut_poo Helong 275 *fora PRM grate, scour grate ; scour Food and drink fola (J:141) fola fola fola fora fola fora fola fora n-fona {2} ʔ-fona-ʔ n-fona {2} ʔ-fona-ʔ (M:127) hola pəla Helong, Hawu-Dhao 276 *foti PRM race back and forth racing ; dance Motion foti (J:142) foti foti foti foti foti foti foti foti n-foti n-foti (M:128) 277 *fua₁ Rote carry a burden, load carry ; load *buhat ‘stand up, arise, emerge, begin, carry; cargo; take something; take a wife’ Motion fua (J:143) fua fua fua fua fua fua fua fua 278 *fua₂ PMeto traditional religion, traditional beliefs religion, traditional No entry for fua or a similar form with a similar meaning has been found in Morris (1984), this term is probably thus a loan from Meto into Fehan Tetun. Social and political relations, religion and belief fuan {2} fua-t n-fua {2} fua-t n-fua (M:129) n-fua {2} uma ʔ-fuʔa ai¯fuan, afuan ETimor 279 *fuɗi PRM persuade persuade Speech and language fu~fudi (J:145) fu~fudi fu~fudi fu~fudi fu~fudi fu~fuɗi fu~fuɗi fu~fuɗi n-furi n-fuli {2} (M:132) 280 *fuʤə PRM foam, foaming foam *bujəq ‘foam, bubbles, lather, scum, froth; to foam, to bubble; foam at the mouth; fond of talking; type of white bead’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) provide the third Termanu form as evidence for PCEMP *budeq ‘sponge’ and the first two forms for PMP *bujəq. However, the retention of PCEMP *d as d in Termanu would be irregular and the complete semantics of tasi_fude, which includes ‘foam’, shows that this third form is also from PMP *bujəq. PCEMP *budeq is probably spurious. *ə = *ə /_q# (expect *e) *j > *ʤ (expect *ɗ) *ə > e /C+palatal_ in all except Kusa-Manea The correspondences for the medial consonant are not the same as either *d or *ɗ. Reconstructing medial *ʤ has the potential to both explain these (otherwise) irregular correspondences, as well as explaining the final vowel correspondences. We can propose that regular final *ə > *a took place in wRM, followed by sporadic raising of *a > e under the influence of preceding palatal *ʤ, followed by the change of *ʤ > *d > r > l. This raising has not taken place in Kusa-Manea, thus indicating that two forms *fude (from *fuʤe with raising of final *a > e) and *fuda (from *fuʤa without raising of the final vowel) probably existed in PMeto. Physical world, sea na-fu~fude {2} fude-k {3} tasi_fude (J:144f) na-fu~fude na-fu~fude na-fu~fude na-fu~fude na-fu~fude na-fu~fuɗe na-fu~fule na-fu~fure fure-ʔ fu͡iri-f ʔ|furi|ʔ, ʔ|furi-f {2} (M:132) fa~fura-f ʔ|fula|ʔ, ʔ|fula-f {2} na-ʔ|fula|ʔ budat [ˈbʊrɐt] bulat furin (Mo:38) nawuri 281 *fue PRM legumes, beans legume ; bean *buay Helong, Tetun, Kemak, and Tagalog attest PMP *buday or *bujay. vowel height harmony *u > o /_e in some Meto Plants, edible plants, vegetables, legumes fu~fue (J:146) fu~fue fu~fue fu~fue fu~fue fu~fue fu~fue fu~fue fu~fue foe foe fue (M:130) fa~foa fue, fua foe-l bula fore (Mo:35) hure kaɓoe {2} ɓuwe 282 *fufu₁ PMeto peak of the skull, ridgepole of house fontanelle *bubuŋ ‘fontanelle; crown of the head; ridge of the roof; ridge of a mountain, peak; deck of a boat; cover the ridgepole with thatch’ *fumbu Body, head fufu-n fufu-f fufu-f (M:130) fuhur (Mo:35) 283 *fufu₂ *ka-fufu-k PRM weevil weevil *bukbuk₃ ‘weevil that infests wood, bamboo, and rice; dust produced by the boring of this insect’ Creatures, bugs, insects, insects with wings, creature taxon fufu-k (J:146) fufu-ʔ fufu-k fufu-ʔ fufu-ʔ fufu-k fufu-k fufu-ʔ fufu-ʔ ʔ|fufu|ʔ (M:130) hupu fuhuk (Mo:36) vuɓu 284 *fui₁ nRM pour water on, douse (as a fire) pour ; douse *buqi PCEMP Actions fui (J:146) fui fui fui fui fui fui n-fui fui (Mo:37) 285 *fui₂ PRM wild wild *bukij ‘mountain; forested inland mountain areas’ *k > Ø The loss of the medial consonant in *bukij (even in languages which otherwise retain *k) is common in the greater Timor area, as is the semantic shift to ‘wild’. That the same semantic shift is accompanied by the same irregular sound change in a number of languages indicates these forms have spread by contact. Creatures fui-k (J:146) fui-ʔ fui-k fui-ʔ fui-ʔ fui-k fui-k fui-ʔ fui-ʔ fui fui fui (M:131) huin fuik (Mo:37) hui (dJ:118) hui 286 *fui₃ *na-fui Rote wash (hands) wash *buRiq Body na-fui oe (J:146) na-fui oe na-fui oe na-fui oe na-fui oe na-fui oe na-fui oe (na-fui oe ?) °n-boe °an-boe hae-n (M:78) boe 287 *fuka Rote dig or work the ground around a plant dig *buka ‘open, uncover, expose’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PCEMP *buqal ‘levered up; uprooted’ on the basis of Rembong boal ‘levered up’, Termanu fuʔa, Tetun fuʔa ‘pull out roots and dirt together’ and Maori hua ‘lever; raise with a lever; steer, paddle’. Bilbaa fu~fuka with medial k shows that any connection between putative *buqal and the Rote forms is spurious. Likewise, medial ʔ in Tetun attests earlier *k not *q. k-8/9 While the sound changes from PMP *buka are regular, I am not completely confident that the required semantic shift is justified. *huka Plants, agriculture (fu)~fuʔa (J:144) fu~fuʔa fu~fuʔa fu~fuka fu~fuʔa fu~fuʔa fu~fuʔa fu~fuʔa boka {2} voka 288 *fula Rote white white *bula[n/R] ‘unnaturally white, albino’ Sense perception fula {2} fula-k (J:146f) fula fula fula fula fula fula fula fula fula-ʔ 289 *fulə nRM wrap around wrap ; twist Motion fule (J:147) fule fule fule fule fule (fule ?) n-funa n-fuun (M:132) 290 *fuli Rote cowrie shell Cypraea mauritiana shell, cowrie *buliq Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon fuli (J:147) fuli fuli fuli fuli ful fuli meo_fuli {2} fuli ndai_fuli {2} fuli vovuri {2} vuri 291 *fuloat PRM kind of tropical chestnut tree Sterculia urceolata |ui{Sterculia urceolata} *a > o in wRM, glottal stop insertion in Meto Plants, tree, plant taxon faloa (J:124) faloa faloa faloa faloa faloa faloa fuloo fuloo filoo fnoʔot 292 *fumbu *ka-fumbu-k PRM crown of the head, ridgepole, peak fontanelle ; ridgepole ; peak ; midday *bubuŋ ‘fontanelle; crown of the head; ridge of the roof; ridge of a mountain, peak; deck of a boat; cover the ridgepole with thatch’ *b > *mb *f > p in Meto (sporadic assimilation?); *f > h in Oenale *fufu Body, head fupu-k {2} na-fupu (J:149) fupu-ʔ {2} na-fupu fupu-k {2} na-fupu fupu-ʔ {2} na-fupu fupu-ʔ {2} na-fupu {2} na-fumpu {2} na-fumbu humbu-ʔ maans=ii na-ʔ|pupu maans=ee na-ʔ|pupu {2} ʔ|pupu-n (M:457) muhuŋ bβəŋu 293 *funi₁ PRM hide, conceal hide *buni Spatial relations funi {2} na-funi (J:148) funi {2} na-funi funi {2} na-funi funi {2} na-funi funi {2} na-funi funi {2} na-funi funi {2} na-funi {2} na-ʔa-funi na-ʔa-funi-ʔ {2} ma-ʔa-funi-ʔ (M:133) huni hakfunin 294 *funi₂ Rote placenta, afterbirth afterbirth ; placenta *tabuni *f > h in wRote Body, internal organs funi-k (J:148) funi-ʔ funi-k funi funi-k funi-k huni-ʔ huni-ʔ 295 *funu PnMeto betel-pepper betel-pepper *burun ‘inferior kind of betel nut’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct this on the basis of cognates in Mongondow, Pamona, and Tetun. They note it may be a chance resemblance. Plants, edible funu furu (Mo:38) huru buru 296 *fura Rote trim lontar palm leaves cut *a > i in wRote Plants, agriculture fula so~soŋa {2} fu~fula-k (J:147) fula fula fula fura fula fura fuli furi hula Helong 297 *futu PRM bundle up, tie, bind bundle ; tie ; bind *butu ‘group, crowd, flock, school, bunch, cluster’ PCEMP *mbutu Actions futu-s (J:149) futu-ʔ futu-k futu-ʔ futu-s futu-s futu-s n-futu n-futu {2} ʔ-futu-ʔ {3} na-ʔ-futu-ʔ n-futu {2} ʔ-futu-ʔ {3} ʔ-futu-ʔ {4} futu-s (M:133) butu futu (Mo:38) wuku 298 *fuu PRM blow blow *buu PCEMP. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) provide the Termanu form as evidence for both PCEMP *buu and PMP *qəmbus ‘blow hard; snort, pant’. The connection between *qəmbus and fuu is spurious. (The expected regular reflex would be *epu). The Termanu form is, furthermore, their only eastern evidence for positing *qəmbus at PMP rather than PWMP. *sabuu Motion fuu (J:143) fuu fuu fuu fuu fuu fuu fuu fuu n-fuu n-fuu {2} ʔ-fuʔu (M:128) huu huu (Mo:89) 299 *ha *na-ha PRM eat eat *kaən *k > *h (expect *k = *k) This is one of the few monosyllabic roots reconstructed to PRM. Similarly, it is the only monosyllabic verb root in the Rote-Meto languages. *h develops as though it were a medial consonant in all daughters, thus providing evidence that this root obligatorily took vocalic agreement prefixes in PRM. The verbal inflection is irregular (and historically more conservative) in the Nuclear Rote languages with the prefixes having vowels other than /a/. (The segmentation in the entries below follows their historical analysis for these languages.) The wRM forms are regular for a verb which takes vocalic prefixes (see §2.6.5). Food and drink ─ʔa (J:368) ─ʔa ─ʔa ─a ─a ─a ─a ─ʔa ─ʔa ─ʔa ─a ─a ─a ─ha ─ha ─ha (M:51) ─ah kaa haa (Mo:101) ─ʔon, -ʔan 300 *haa₁ CER lontar thorn thorn, lontar Plants, tree, palm, plant parts beba_haa-k (J:150) haa Helong 301 *haa₂ PRM four four *əpat *ə > Ø with doubling of the final vowel to create a disyllable External witnesses suggest earlier **paat. The Welaun correspondence indicates #VC > #CV metathesis of *əpat > **pəat. Quantity haa (J:150) haa haa haa haa haa haa haa haa haa haa haa|ʔ (M:134) aat haat (Mo:39) woʔakka paat hoat 302 *habu PnMeto cloud, fog cloud ; fog *kabut ‘fog, haze, mist; indistinct, blurry’ *b (> *ɓ) = *b /V_V (expect *f) Reconstructed with initial *h (not *k) as this is a Proto-Nuclear Meto form. Thus, I am proposing PRM *k > Proto-Nuclear Meto *h in this form. If this form were *kaɓu in PRM it would exemplify pattern k-3/4 for initial *k. Physical world, sky habu 303 *hade PRM rice in the field; rice plant rice, paddy *pajay *j > *d (expect *ɗ) *h > Ø in wRM Plants, edible plants, crops hade (J:151) hade hade hade hade hade haɗe ale are are aan/ʔoe|k ain/ʔoe|k ane {2} aan/ʔoe|k (M:22) ane {2} aen/oa|k ane ane ale hare (Mo:77) are are 304 *hae PRM breathe breathe ; rest ; tired Body, emission hae {2} hae, hai (J:152) hae {2} hae, hai hae {2} hae, hai hae {2} hae, hai hae {2} hae, hai hae {2} hae, hai hae {2} hae, hai hae {2} hae, hai hae {2} hae, hai n-hae kae, hkae a~ae, ae Helong, Hawu-Dhao 305 *hae|ʔ PMeto foot/leg foot ; leg *kakay Reconstructed with the doublets *waqay and *qaqay. (Wolff 2010:862) *VV-k > *VVʔ > VʔV in Amarasi (perceptual metathesis) Reconstructed with initial *h (not *k) as this is a Proto-Meto form. Thus, I am proposing PRM *k > PMeto *h in this form. If this form is regular from *kakay it exemplifies pattern k-3/4 for initial *k and pattern k-8 for medial *k). *ei Body, limbs, legs hae-f haʔe, hae-f hae-k (M:134) kae_ʄəla 306 *hai₁ *hai-k Rote container woven from lontar leaves bucket ; basket **pai pre-RM Tools hai-k (J:154) hai-ʔ hai-k hai-k hai-ʔ hai-k hai-k hai-ʔ hai-ʔ pai pai Helong, Hawu-Dhao 307 *hai₂ PRM stingray stingray *paRih ‘skate, stingray (generic); a constellation ’ Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon hai (J:153) hai hai hai hai hai hai hai hai hai|f ai 308 *ha(ʔ)i Rote take take Possession hai {2} hai {3} hai {4} hai {5} hai {6} haʔi (J:153f) hai {2} haʔi {3} hai {4} hai {5} hai {6} haʔi {2} hai {3} haʔi {4} hai {5} hai {6} haʔi hai {3} hai {4} hai {5} hai {6} hai {2} hai {3} hai {4} hai {5} hai {6} (hai ?) hai {2} hai {3} haʔi {4} hai {5} hai {6} haʔi hai {2} hai {3} haʔi {4} hai {5} hai {6} haʔi hai {2} haʔi {3} haʔi {4} hai {6} haʔi hai {3} hai {4} hai {6} haʔi əgo ahi Bima, Hawu-Dhao 309 *halu *halu-k PRM pestle pestle *qahəlu *q > *h *h > Ø in Rote Food and drink, tools alu-k (J:8) alu-ʔ alu-k alu-ʔ alu-ʔ alu-k alu-k alu-ʔ alu-ʔ alu-ʔ ha͡unu|k hanu|k hanu hanu hanu hanu alu alu(k) (Mo:3) 310 *hambu PRM overtake, catch up with overtake ; find Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct Proto-Philippine *qabut ‘reach, overtake, catch up with’. Motion hapu (J:162) hapu hapu hapu hapu hampu hambu hambu hambu n-hapu (M:140) hapu abu {2} abo abβu Helong, Hawu-Dhao, Hawu-Dhao 311 *hanas *ma-hanas, *na-hana PRM warm, hot hot *panas Sense perception hanas {2} na-ma-hana {3} na-hana (J:158f) hana-ʔ hana-k hana-ʔ hanas hanas hanas hanas hanas m|anas m|anas {2} na-hana {3} k|hanas m|anas {2} na-hana (M:304) m|anas manas (Mo:138) manha 312 *hani₁ Rote bait, feed (animals) bait ; feed (v.) *paniŋ ‘bait; fodder; to feed animals’ Creatures, domesticated animals hani-k (J:161) hani-ʔ hani-k hani-ʔ hani-ʔ hani-k hani-k hani-ʔ ha~hani-ʔ hani hani ani {2} (On:398) 313 *hani₂ *hani-k PnRote kind of shell, turtle shell, shell **napi pre-RM consonant metathesis *nVp > *pVn > *hVn Creatures, aquatic hani-k {2} kea hani-k {3} poe hani-k (J:161) hani-ʔ hani-k hani-ʔ hani-k (hani-k ?) (On:317) Sumba 314 *hano *ka-hano PRM fungus infection which produces light patches on the skin: |ui{Tinea flava} or Pityriasis spots ; rash *panaw Body, sickness ha~hano (J:161) ha~hano ha~hano ha~hano ha~hano ha~hano ha~hano hano hano ʔ|hano (M:139) ano 315 *haŋɡa PwRote hand span span ; hand span **paŋɡa pre-RM *teŋɡa Spatial relations haŋɡa haŋɡa (On:400) Flores, Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 316 *hao PRM feed feed **pao pre-RM Creatures, domesticated animals hao (J:161) hao hao hao hao hao hao hao hao n-hao n-hao pao Bima 317 *hapi PRM pinch, clamp pinch ; clamp *kapit ‘pinch, press between; fasten thatch together with slats in roofing a house’ *k > *h *p = *p *h > h, Ø in Oenale *kaɓi Sense perception hapi hapi na-ka-hapi hapi hapi {2} api n-hapi n-hapi (M:134) 318 *hara *hara-k PRM voice, sound voice ; sound Body, head, mouth hala-k (J:156) hala-ʔ hala-k hala-ʔ hara-ʔ hala-k hara-k hala-ʔ hara-ʔ hana-f {2} na-hana hana-f {2} na-hana hana-f {2} na-haan (M:138) bhala, khala fala Helong 319 *haru *haru-k PRM shoulder shoulder *h > Ø in Rote Body, limbs, arms alu-k (J:8) alu-ʔ alu-k alu-ʔ aru-ʔ aru-ʔ alu-k aru-k alu-ʔ aru-ʔ aru-ʔ ha͡unu-f hanu-f hanu-f hanu-k adu Helong 320 *hatahori PRM man, person man ; person *qaRta + *qudip ‘person + living’ (Charles Grimes pers. comm.) *q > *h; *q > *h *h > Ø in wRM Osmond and Ross (2016b:47) reconstruct POc *[qa]ta-maquri ‘living person’ noting it ‘[…] spans a large piece of Oceania, but it has few reflexes and may reflect parallel innovations.’ Kemak has atamoas ‘human being’ which is similarly a compound of a reflex of *qaRta with moas ‘living’. Loss of medial *h in Meto is probably due to historic antepenultimate vowel reduction with subsequent simplification of the resulting consonant cluster; e.g. *hatahori > **ataholi > **atholi > pre-Meto **atoli > Proto-Meto *atoni. *ata People hataholi (J:164f) hataholi hataholi hataholi hataholi hatahori atahori atahori atoni|ʔ atoni|ʔ (M:34) atoin atoni-ʤ °atuli 321 *hauk PRM soothe soothe ; calm down Emotions and values na-ka-ha~hau-k {2} hau-k (J:166) na-ka-ha~hauʔ na-ka-ha~hau-k na-ha~hau-ʔ na-ka-ha~hau-k na-ka-ha~hau-k na-ʔa-ha~hau-ʔ (na-)hauk 322 *hedu *hedu-k PRM gall bladder, bitter gall bladder ; bitter *qapəju ‘gall, gall bladder, bile’ *j > *d (expect *ɗ) *h > Ø in wRM PwRM *meru can be reconstructed. It is from earlier **ma-hedu. Body, internal organs hedu-k {2} ma-ka-hedu-k (J:169) hedu-ʔ {2} ma-ka-hedu-ʔ hedu-k {2} ma-ka-hedu-k hedu-ʔ hedu=na hedu-ʔ {2} ma-hedu-ʔ hedu-k {2} ma-ka-hedu-k heɗu-k {2} ma-ka-heɗu-k heɗu-k elu-ʔ {2} m|elu eru-ʔ {2} m|eru eru-ʔ {2} m|eru e͡unu-f enu-f {2} m|enu|ʔ {2} m|enu|ʔ (M:102) enu-f {2} m|enu|ʔ ilu-n horun naʔan hourun (Mo:88) ʔeru~ʔeru-n 323 *heɗis Rote sick, pain sick ; pain *hapəjis ‘smarting, stinging pain’ *meras Body, sickness hedis {2} na-ma-hedi (J:168) hedi-ʔ hedi-k hedi-ʔ {2} na-ma-hedi hedis hedis heɗis heɗis heɗis heɗis {2} na-ma-heɗi-ʔ ili 324 *hee₁ CERM lobster lobster Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon poe_hee-k (J:166) poe_hee-ʔ poe_hee-ʔ kpoe_hee oo poe_hee eeŋ Helong 325 *hee₂ Rote press out press *pəRəq ‘squeeze out juice, wring out water’ Ø > ʔ ~ Ø in Termanu and Bokai regular *ə > e /_q#. Forms with medial ʔ are perhaps due to influence from *keʔe and/or reflexes of PMP *gəmgəm Food and drink heʔe, hee (J:169) hee heʔe, hee hee hee hee hee hee, ee hee hele 326 *hela nRM pull pull *l > r/l in Meto Actions hela (J:170) hela hela hela hela hela hela n-hera n-hela (M:144) pela Helong 327 *helu Rote bend bend *bəluk *b > *h *fenu, *felu Actions helu (J:172) helu helu helu helu helu helu helu helu hilu 328 *hena PRM hope hope Emotions and values na-ma-hena {2} dale=na hena~hena (J:173) na-ma-hena na-ma-hena na-ma-hena na-ma-hena na-ma-hena na-ma-hena na-ma-hena na-ma-hena na-mhena °namhena 329 *hene PRM climb climb *panahik antepenultimate *a > **ə > *e Motion hene (J:174) hene hene hene hene hene hene 330 *henu CERM full full ; fill *pənuq Quantity henu-k (J:176) henu-ʔ henu-k henu-ʔ henu-ʔ henu-k na-henu na-henu (M:145) na-heun inu penu benu 331 *henuh PRM beads beads **penuk pre-RM *h > Ø in wRM; vowel height harmony *e > i /_Cu in wRM Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PMP *hinuq, and PAN *SiNuq. The eastern correspondences point to **penuk, and it may be that we have to reconstruct a doublet to P(CE)MP. If so, the wRM reflexes could reflect PMP *hinuq (but with irregular final *q > h as retained by Meto), while the other Rote reflexes reflect **penuk. Clothing and grooming henu (J:176) henu henu henu henu henu henu inu inu inu inuh inuh (M:161) inuh henu (Mo:85) enu (dJ:114) ETimor, Wetar, Flores, Maluku 332 *hendam PRM wild pandanus pandanus, wild *paŋdan ‘pandanus’ *a > *e; *n > *m *h > Ø in wRM; Ø > ʔ /#_ in Dela-Oenale The initial ʔ in Dela-Oenale may point to an earlier initial **k. Additional evidence for this comes from Ili'uun keʧan. The source of this initial **k could be the nominal prefix *ka-. Plants, useful plants, plant taxon hena-k (J:174) hena-k hena-ʔ henda-ʔ henda-ʔ hera-ʔ hena-k henda-k henda-k (ʔ)enda-ʔ ʔenda-ʔ ʔenda-ʔ eram, erem ekam ekam (M:99) ekam/ekom edan keʧan (dJ:121) 333 *heŋɡe PRM hang (rope/cord), tie hang ; necklace possibly connected with PMP *hikət Actions heŋe (J:174) heŋe heŋe heke heŋɡe heŋɡe heŋɡe na-ʔ|heke {2} ʔ-heke-ʔ na-ʔ|heke (M:143) eki SW Maluku 334 *heŋɡu PRM eat something hard eat *pagut ‘snap at with the mouth’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) note regarding their reconstruction: ‘The semantics of this comparison leave something to be desired.’ They also reconstruct the root *-gut ‘gnaw’. *a > *e *h > Ø in Meto Food and drink heŋu (J:175) heŋu heŋu heŋu heku heŋɡu heŋɡu heŋɡu heŋɡu n-eku n-eku (M:98) (On:401) 335 *heo *he~heo Rote move move Motion he~heo-k (J:178) he~heo-ʔ he~heo-k he~heo-ʔ he~heo-k he~heo-k he~heo-ʔ he~heo-ʔ he~heon Helong 336 *hesu PnRote fart fart **pəsu pre-RM *h > Ø in Central East Rote Body, emission esu (J:116) esu esu esu esu esu hesu nisu hosu, housu (Mo:88) pəhu (On:165) poʧu Helong, Sumba, ETimor, Bima, Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 337 *həndi Rote finish, finished finish *qəti ‘stop, end, finish, complete; finished, used up’ *t > *nd (also in Helong) *q > *h *nd > n /ə_ in Tii and Rikou Time heni (J:175) heni heni heni heni heni heni hendi hendi hidi 338 *hia PRM want want *pian ‘want, desire, wish or long for’ *a > i in Rote; *ia > (*e) > a in Kusa-Manea Medial *ia is required to account for e in Amarasi. Emotions and values hii (J:179) hii hii hii hii hii hii hii hii hii he ha 339 *hida PRM how much, how many how much? *pija ‘interrogative of quantity: how much?, how many?; adjective of indefinite quantity: some, several, a few’ *j > *d (expect *ɗ) *hiɗa Cognition hida (J:182) hida hida hida hida hida hiɗa hiɗa hira hira hian ila hira (Mo:86) 340 *hiɗa PwRote few, reduce few ; reduce *pija ‘interrogative of quantity: how much?, how many?; adjective of indefinite quantity: some, several, a few’ *h > Ø in Dengka *hida Quantity iɗa-ʔ {2} na-ma-iɗa na-ma-hiɗa hiɗa(k) 341 *hine PwRM know know vowel height harmony *e > i /iC_ in some Meto Cognition na-hine na-hine na-hini na-hini, na-hine {2} ma-hine-ʔ na-hiin {2} (M:148) na-hini 342 *hiri PRM choose, select; to pick out choose *piliq *l > *r *i > e in Rote *h > Ø in Meto; diphthongisation in Meto: *i > ai Emotions and values hele (J:170) hele hele hele here hele here hele here (M:11) huli hili (Mo:86) piɗi 343 *hitu PRM seven seven *pitu Quantity hitu (J:185) hitu hitu hitu hitu hitu hitu hitu hitu hitu hitu hitu (M:149) hiut itu hitu (Mo:86) (haʔ)itu (dJ:119) itu 344 *hoi PRM dry in the sun dry in sun *waRi ‘day, sun’ Ø > *h vowel height harmony *i > e /o_ in Amarasi Tetun provides evidence that the unexpected initial h in the reflexes could be retention of a causative prefix; e.g. **pa-waRi. *fai Sense perception hoi (J:186) hoi hoi hoi hoi hoi hoi hoi hoi n-hoe n-hoe n-hoi (M:151) hoi °huiʔ hawai habai, hauai (Mo:39, 83) noe 345 *hoka PRM call up, invite invite ; call up k-5 Speech and language hoka (J:187) hoka hoka hoka hoʔa hoka hoka hoka hoka n-hoka n-hoka (M:151) hoka Helong 346 *holas PRM naked naked *h > Ø in Meto Body ma-ka-hola-k {2} hola~hola, tao hola {3} na-ka-hola (J:188) ma-ka-hola-ʔ ma-ka-hola-k {2} hola~hola ma-ka-hola-k hola ma-ka-hola-k ma-ʔa-hola-ʔ {2} hola~hola ma-ʔa-hola-ʔ {2} hola~hola monos mutiʔ_monas {2} n-ʔafaʔ_monas n-monas {2} (M:xxxiii,88) keʔula Flores, Hawu-Dhao 347 *holu₁ PRM hug, embrace hug ; embrace *pəluk ‘bend, curve’ *ə > *o *l > Ø in Meto; *u > o in Meto Emotions and values holu (J:190) holu holu holu holu holu holu holu holu holu holu n-hoo n-hoo (M:149) 348 *holu₂ Rote help, assist help Possibly connected with PMP *tuluŋ and/or Malay tolong, though this would require irregular *t > *h. Social and political relations holu (J:190) holu holu holu holu (holu ?) holu huluŋ Helong 349 *horis PRM life, living living *qudip ‘live’ *u > *o *q > *h expected *p > s /_# (§3.5.1.3) *mori Body holis horis ka-ho͡inis {2} na-honiʔ ʔ|honis {2} na-honis {3} na-honiʔ {4} honiʔ {5} a-mahoni-t {2} oe ʔhonis {3} na-honiʔ {4} au mahoni-k (M:152) nulis {2} nuli horis houris (Mo:188) ʔori~ʔori 350 *hosu PRM loosen loosen ; pull out The Rote forms with initial m probably come from earlier **ma-hosu. Jonker (1908:496) also gives Termanu, Korbafo, Bokai, Bilbaa, and Rikou posu ‘loosen, come off, slip’ which is probably related and points to earlier **posu. This term is related to a network of formally and semantically similar terms including Termanu, Korbafo, Bokai podu ‘slip, slip off, loosen’ (Jonker 1908:489), Termanu, Korbafo, Bokai, Ba'a odu ‘pull on, put on, pull something on, put something on’ (Jonker 1908:452), and all Rote olu ‘pull on, put on’ (Jonker 1908:457), Termanu, Korbafo, Bokai, Bilbaa, Tii kosu ‘remove skin, loosening of the skin’. Among these terms, the first could have reinforced irregular retention of pre-RM *p = p in posu. Spatial relations m|osu (J:362) m|osu m|osu m|osu m|osu m|osu m|osu m|osu m|osu n-osu n-osu {2} n-hosu {3} na-t|hosu (M:408) 351 *hotu PRM burn burn *h > Ø in Meto *mbutu hot, burning Physical world, fire hotu (J:191) hotu hotu hotu hotu hotu hotu hotu hotu n-otu n-otu n-otu {2} maʔ-otu-ʔ (M:409) n-out otot hotu Helong, ETimor 352 *huka Rote open open *buka ‘open, uncover, expose’ k-6 *b > *h *fuka Spatial relations huka (J:195) huka huka huka huka huka huʔa huʔa boka 353 *huʔe PnMeto eucalyptus eucalyptus **pue pre-Meto Several Alor-Pantar languages have likely cognates of this form, e.g. Kabola has puʔ. Plants, tree, plant taxon huʔe (M:154) huʔe-l poe oe CTimor 354 *hulu PRM first, in front first ; front, be in *qulu ‘head; top part; leader, chief; headwaters; handle of a bladed implement; prow of a boat; first, first-born’ *q > *h *h > Ø in Rikou *ulu Spatial relations na-ka-hulu-k (J:196) na-ka-hulu-k na-ulu na-ka-hulu-k na-ka-hulu-k na-ʔa-hulu-ʔ na-ʔa-hulu-ʔ na-hunu na-hunu na-hunu (M:156) 355 *humək PRM smile, be joyful smile ; face *ə > e /σ_# in wRote (perhaps *ə > *a > e /_#) Body, head hume (J:197) hume hume hume hume hume hume hume~hume, humel humek humek humu-f {2} humaʔ huma-f {2} humaʔ {3} na-huma {4} n-humaʔ_moe huma-n {2} n-humaʔ_moe (M:156) humuʔ 356 *hundi PRM banana banana *punti *nt > *nd (expect *t) *h > Ø in Meto Plants, edible plants, fruit huni (J:197) huni huni huni hundi hundi huri huni hundi hundi hundi uri uki uki (M:663) uki hudi (Mo:88) 357 *huŋɡa PRM chop with force, chop big branches chop *pu(ŋ)kaq ‘break off’ *h > Ø in Meto Actions huŋa (J:197) huka huŋɡa huŋɡa huŋɡa uka-l (M:585) (On:423) poŋɡo 358 *husə *husə-k PRM navel navel *pusəj ‘navel, umbilicus; mid-point or centre of something’ *h > ʔ in most Rote *h > Ø in Meto The initial ʔ in wRote possibly from earlier *k, also attested by Ili'uun kusan. These forms are perhaps via intermediate *ka-husə-k. Body, torso (ʔ)use-k (J:671) (ʔ)use-ʔ (ʔ)use-k (ʔ)use-ʔ ʔuse-ʔ (ʔ)use-k huse-k huse-k (ʔ)usa-ʔ ʔusa-ʔ ʔusa-ʔ usu-f usa-f (M:591) usa-f husar, husor (Mo:89) huso kusan (dJ:122) ohor-ne əhu 359 *huti CERM provoke, incite provoke ; incite There is also a variant *huhi found outside wRote, e.g. Termanu na-ka-hu~huʔi-k, Bilbaa na-ka-hu~hui-ʔ and others (Jonker 1908:195). Speech and language huti, na-ka-hu~huti-k (J:198) (M:154) 360 *hutu *na-hutu nRM rub, smear rub Actions na-hutu {2} na-la-hu~hutu (J:199) na-hutu {2} na-la-hu~hutu na-hutu {2} na-la-hu~hutu na-hutu {2} na-la-hu~hutu na-hutu {2} na-la-hu~hutu {2} na-la-hu~hutu na-hutu {2} na-la-hu~hutu n-huta n-huut (M:157) 361 *huu *huu, *huu-k, *ma-huu-k PRM base of a tree; cause; source, origin; beginning tree trunk ; source *puqun ‘base of a tree; cause; source, origin; beginning; foot of a hill or mountain; first wife; model or example (to be copied); expression for the mother’s brother’ *h > Ø in Meto; *VV-k > *VVʔ > VʔV in Meto (perceptual metathesis) Plants, plant parts huu-k {2} huu {3} ma-huu-k {4} na-ta-huu, mete/huu-n (J:193f) huu-ʔ {2} huu huu-k {2} huu huu-ʔ {2} huu huu-ʔ {2} huu huu-k {2} huu huu-k {2} huu huu-ʔ {2} huu huu-ʔ {2} huu uu-f uʔu {2} uu-f {3} maʔ-uʔu {4} naʔ-uu-b=oo-n uu|ʔ {2} uu-f (M:583) uun huun (Mo:89) 362 *ia PRM this, here this ; here *ia ‘demonstrative pronoun and adverb: this, here; that, there’ Spatial relations ia (J:199) ia ia ia ia ia ia ia ia ia ai ia {2} =ii ii (M:158) ia ii ii ain, iin iin, ii ia 363 *iɗu Rote nose, kiss kiss ; nose *ijuŋ ‘nose’ Ø > ʔ /#_ in Dela-Oenale Body, head idu_ai-k {2} pana_idu (J:200) idu-ʔ idu-ʔ idu-ʔ idu-ʔ idu iɗu-k iɗu-k {2} iɗu (ʔ)iɗu ʔiɗu ʔiɗu ilu ilu-r, ilug-aaŋ, iliguur iluk-aat 364 *ifa PRM lap lap *riba *r > Ø diphthongisation *i > ai in Meto; Ø > ʔ /#_ in Dela-Oenale Body, limbs, legs ifa {2} ifa-k (J:200) ifa ifa ifa ifa ifa ifa (ʔ)ifa ʔifa {2} ʔifa-ʔ na-ʔaifa|ʔ ifa-n {2} aifa-f {3} n-aifan {4} a-fafa-t =ma a-mn-aifa-t (M:158) iha 365 *iha PnRote sister-in-law sister-in-law *hipaR ‘sibling-in-law (probably of the same sex only)’ *h > ʔ /V_V in wRote (expect Ø); *Ø > h in Tii and Lole Ø > h /#_Vʔ in Termanu, Korbafo, Bokai, Ba'a and Lole The irregularities in wRote, Tii, and Lole indicate that this term is a borrowing in these lects. People, kin hiʔa (J:182) hiʔa hiʔa ia ia hiʔa hiʔa hiʔa hiʔa hiʔa iha 366 *ika *ika-k PRM fish fish *hikan k-10 Creatures, aquatic creatures, fish iʔa-k (J:200) iʔa-ʔ iʔa-k ika-ʔ ika-ʔ ika-ʔ ika-ʔ iʔa-k iʔa-k ia-ʔ ʔuʔu_ia-ʔ ika|ʔ ika|ʔ ika|ʔ (M:159) ika|ʔ ikan ikan (Mo:90) iʔa 367 *ikə Rote snare, noose snare ; noose *hikət ‘tie, bind, attach to by tying’ k-6ʹ (*k > Ø in Bilbaa, *k > ʔ in Ba'a; expect *k = k in both) *ə > a in Termanu, Korbafo, Ba'a, and Tii Ø > h /#_Vʔ in Bilbaa, Rikou and Ba'a *ə > (*e) > i in Bilbaa can be explained by the prohibition against the vowel sequences ie and uo Rote *iʔi-k ‘kind of liana suitable for tying’ may also be from PMP *hikət. Reflexes of Rote *iʔi-k are as follows: Termanu, Bokai, Tii, iʔi-k Korbafo, Rikou, Dengka iʔi-ʔ, Bilbaa ii-ʔ, and Ba'a hiʔi-k. Warfare and hunting ika {2} i~ika-k, ika-k (J:200f) ika {2} i~ika-ʔ ike {2} i~ike-k na-ka-hi~hii {3} hi~hii hiʔe {2} hi~hiʔe {2} hi~hiʔa-k ike {2} i~ike-k, ike-k (ʔ)iʔa {2} (ʔ)iʔa-t ʔiʔa {2} ʔi~ʔiʔa-t ʔiʔa 368 *iko *iko-k PRM tail tail *ikuR k-5 *u > *o /_*R# Body, animal body iko-k (J:201) iko-ʔ iko-k iko-ʔ iko=na iko-ʔ iko-k iko-k iko-ʔ iko-ʔ iko-ʔ i͡uku-f iku-f iko-f (M:159) iku-f ikun iku-n (Mo:90) hiʔon 369 *ila Rote mole, freckle, birthmark mole (skin) ; freckle ; birthmark *qila ‘any natural mark on human skin: birthmark, freckle, mole’ Body, torso i~ila (J:201) i~ila i~ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila 370 *imun PMeto kind of biting flying insect; midge, mosquito mosquito ; midge Creatures, bugs, insects, insects with wings imun imun (M:160) Flores 371 *ina *ina-k PRM mother, mother’s sister mother ; woman *ina diphthongisation *i > ai in Meto People, kin ina-k (J:202f) ina-ʔ ina-k ina-k ina-ʔ ina-ʔ ina-k ina-k ina-ʔ ina-ʔ ina-ʔ {2} ina-n inaʔ aina-f, ainaʔ ainaʔ, oin (M:88) eneʔ ena-f ina ina-n {2} inan (Mo:90) ina 372 *inu *n-inu PRM drink drink *inum Food and drink n-inu (J:397) n-inu n-inu n-inu n-inu n-inu n-inu n-inu n-inu n-inu n-inu n-inu n-inu (M:160) n-inu 373 *inus CER certain kind of bird called burung angin in Kupang Malay bird, kind Creatures, birds, creature taxon inus (J:205) inu-ʔ inu-k inu-ʔ inus maun_inus Helong 374 *iŋɡu PRM country, land country ; land ; village Social and political relations iŋu (J:204) iŋu iŋu iŋu iku iŋɡu iŋɡu iŋɡu iŋɡu iŋɡu iku iŋu iŋu Helong 375 *isa₁ PRM tie together tie ; bind *a > e in several lects and senses diphthongisation *i > ai in Meto Those languages with only one form given use it for both the Termanu senses unless otherwise indicated. Actions isa {2} ise {3} ise-k (J:205f) isa {2} ise ise isi {2} (ise) ise isa {2} isa ise (ʔ)isa ʔisa ʔisa na-ʔaisa aisa-t (M:11) aisi-t 376 *isa₂ *n-isa PRM utterly, the final point completely ; win ; kill Body n-isa (J:398) n-isa n-isa n-isa n-isa n-isa n-isa n-isa n-isa n-isa n-isa (M:161) isi Helong 377 *isi *isi-k Rote contents, fruit flesh contents ; flesh, fruit *isiʔ ‘flesh (of humans, animals, fruits, tubers); reside; blade of a knife; inhabitants, residents’ Body, internal organs isi=na, isi-k (J:206) isi=na isi=na isi=na isi=na isi=na isi=na isi-ʔ isi=na isi-ʔ isi-n isi-n (Mo:91) 378 *ita *n-ita PRM see; try, attempt see ; look *kita₂ *k > Ø /#_ Sense perception n-ita {2} n-ita-k (J:398f) n-ita n-ita n-ita n-ita n-ita n-ita n-ita n-ita n-ita {2} n-ita-ʔ n-ita n-ita n-ita (M:239) iat n-eta 379 *iu PRM shark shark *qihu Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon iu (J:207) iu iu iu iu iu iu iu iu iu iu iik_iu iu (M:163) iu uu 380 *kaa₁ Rote bite bite *kaRat k-1/2/3 Body, emission kaa (J:208) kaa kaa kaa ʔaanan ʔaa ʔaa kaa kaa 381 *kaa₂ PRM crow (the bird) crow k-1 Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct *wakwak which may be cognate. onomatopoeia Creatures, birds, creature taxon kaa (J:208) kaa kaa kaa kaa kaa kaa kaaʔ kaaʔ koor_kaaʔ koor_kaaʔ metan kool_kaaʔ (M:164) kakalo kaoa (Mo:101) Helong, ETimor 382 *ka|benu PMeto fly fly *bəRŋaw Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct both *bəRŋaw and *baŋaw. *aw > *u (expect *o) *b > (*ɓ) > *b *mbena Creatures, bugs, insects, insects with wings, creature taxon kbenu kbenu akbenu 383 *kaɓi PRM clamp pinch ; clamp *kapit ‘pinch, press between; fasten thatch together with slats in roofing a house’ k-3 *p > *ɓ *hapi Sense perception kabi (J:209) kabi kabi kabi ʔabi kabi kaɓi (ʔ)abi ʔaɓi ʔaɓi {2} n-habi {3} (M:3) n-ʔaib habit (Mo:40) 384 *kaɗe *kaɗe-k Rote charcoal charcoal *qajəŋ k-1ʹ (*k > ʔ in Ba'a, expect *k = k) *ə > *e /_# (expect *ə > a in wRote, possibly *ə > *a > e) *a > *e /*C+palatal_ The initial *k may be from the PRM nominal prefix *ka-. Physical world, fire (haʔi) kade-k (J:211) kade-k kade-ʔ ʔade-ʔ (ʔ)ade-k kaɗe-k kaɗe-ʔ kaɗe-ʔ aleŋ arne 385 *kae PRM cockatoo cockatoo k-1 Clark (2011:321) reconstructs Proto Papuan Tip *wakeke ~ *kakawe which may be cognate. onomatopoeia Creatures, birds, creature taxon ka~kae (J:211) ka~kae ka~kae ka~kae ka~kae ka~kae koor kae koor kae mutiʔ kool kae, kae mutiʔ (M:167) ka~kae, ka~kai (Mo:96) ETimor 386 *kahi₁ PRM pull towards oneself pull ; push k-2b Actions kaʔi (J:214) kaʔi (ʔ)ai kaʔi kaʔi (ʔ)ai ʔai ʔai n-ʔai n-ʔai {2} na-ʔai-b=on {3} na-ʔai-b-aʔ (M:8) kahi Helong 387 *kahi₂ Rote count count k-2/3 Quantity kaʔi (J:214) kaʔi kaʔi kaʔi (ʔ)a~(ʔ)ai kahi, kasi Helong 388 *kahin PRM stop, prevent stop ; prohibit k-2a *k > ŋ in Bilbaa Time kaʔi (J:214) kaʔi na-sa-ŋai ʔai kaʔi kaʔi (ʔ)ai ʔai ʔai na-kain-aʔ kaiŋ hakahik (Mo:49) Helong, ETimor 389 *kahu Rote kind of fish fish, kind k-1 *h > ʔ in Rikou (expect *h > Ø) vague semantics weaken reconstruction Creatures, aquatic creatures, fish, creature taxon kaʔu (J:224) kaʔu kaʔu kau kaʔu kaʔu kaʔu kau kau khau Helong 390 *kai₁ Rote stiff, awkward stiff k-2/3 Sense perception na-ma-kai {2} bala/kai-k (J:214, 26) na-ma-kai {2} bala/kai-ʔ na-ma-kai {2} bala/kai-k na-ma-kai {2} bala/kai-ʔ na-ma-ʔai {2} bara/ai-ʔ na-ma-kai {2} bala/kai-k na-ma-kai {2} ɓara/kai-k {2} balaʔai-ʔ kalkait {2} kain kai (dJ:120) Helong, Wetar 391 *kai₂ PRM hook hook *kawit k-1 Warfare and hunting kai (J:212) kai kai kai ʔai {2} ʔa~ʔai kai kai kai kai ʔ-kaʔi (M:169) kait 392 *kai/ou PRM Casuarina tree Casuarina species Casuarina species *qaRuhu ‘shore tree |ui{Casuarina equisetifolia}’ k-2bʹ (*k > ʔ in Tii, expect *k = k) *a > *o (sporadic assimilation) *k > ʔ /#_ in Tii initial *kai probably from *kaiu ‘tree, plant, wood’ Plants, tree, plant taxon kai/ou (J:216f) kai/ou kai/ou kai_ou kai/ou (ʔ)ai/ou kai/ou (ʔ)ai/ou (ʔ)ai/ou (ʔ)ai/ou kaiʤoʔo ʔaiʤoʔo ʔaʤau (M:4, Meijer Drees 1950:1) ʔaioo ʔaioo, ʔaiyoo ʔaiʤau ʔaroo-gw, ʔuroʔ ʔuʤau, ʔaiʤoo ka/keu ka/keu (Mo:97) kˀau gou ai hou (On:137) 393 *kais *ma-kais PRM sour sour k-3 Sense perception ma-keis {2} ma-kei (J:228) ma-kei-ʔ ma-kei-ʔ ma-kei-ʔ ma-ʔeis ma-keis ma-keis ma-ʔeis ma-ʔeis ma-ʔei (M:297) 394 *kaiu PRM tree, plant; wood tree ; wood *kahiw k-4 Several names of specific trees in Rote lects begin with a (fossilised) reflex of *kaiu. These reflexes of *kaiu are not always identical to the reflexes given here. Plants, useful plants ai (J:5) ai ai kai ai ai ai ai hau hau hau hau hau (M:141) hau kai ai (Mo:2) au ai aʄu aʄu 395 *kai/usu Rote ribs ribs *Rusuk k-2/3 *Ø > h in Tii Source of initial *kai unclear, Jonker connects it with the prefix ka-. Body, torso kai/usu-k (J:217) kai/usu-ʔ kai/usu-k (ʔ)ai/usu-ʔ kai/usu-k kai/husu-k (ʔ)ai/usu-ʔ ʔai/usu-ʔ ʔai/usu-ʔ rusan 396 *kaka *kaka-k Rote elder sibling of the same sex sibling, elder *kaka initial k-2/3ʹ, medial k-8ʹ The alternate Dengka form with initial k is not regular under pattern k-2/3, similarly medial k in the alternate Dengka and Tii forms is not regular under pattern k-8. These irregularities may be due to borrowing, though the nearest Rote form with medial k is Bilbaa which does not neighbour either Tii or Dengka. If a borrowing hypothesis is taken to explain these irregularities Malay kakak would be the most likely source. People, kin kaʔa-k (J:209) kaʔa-ʔ kaʔa-k kaka-ʔ ʔaʔa=na ʔaʔa kaʔa-k kaʔa kaka-k, kaʔa kaka-ʔ, ʔaʔa ʔaʔa ʔaʔa kaka kaka aʔa 397 *kalati Rote earthworm worm ; earthworm *kali-wati k-1/2/3 Ø > n in Landu antepenultimate syllable loss in wRote Creatures, bugs, grub, creature taxon kalati-k {2} kelati dae (J:219) kalati-ʔ kalati-k kalati-ʔ kalnati kalati-ʔ sikalati-k sikalati-k la~lati-ʔ la~lati-ʔ blatiʔ (k)la~latik (Mo:108) 398 *kali PRM dig dig *kali k-3 Plants, agriculture kali (J:219) kali kali kali ʔali kali kali (ʔ)ali ʔali ʔali n-hani n-hani n-hani (M:139) kali 399 *kalusa PMeto fingernail, toenail, claw fingernail ; toenail ; nail, finger-/toe- ; claw **kilusa pre-Meto k-1/2a *l > l ~ n in Kualiin Amanuban I have posited an original trisyllable as most varieties of Meto show regular *l > n, unlike PRM *kl which is reflected as kl or kr. However, the alternate form in Kualiin Amanuban, klusa-n, points to early reduction of the antepenultimate syllable. Thus, *kalusa may have had the alternate form *klusa in PMeto. Body, limbs tnusu-f knusa-f knusa-f, klusa-n, knusat kalusun, klusun (dJ:120) Wetar 400 *kame Rote knead knead *gəmgəm k-2/3 *ə > *a /#C_; *ə > *e /_# *keʔe, *keme, *kumu₂, *ŋɡumu Actions kame {2} ka~kame (J:220) kame kame kame keme kame kame (ʔ)ame (ʔ)ame 401 *ka(m)i PRM we, first person plural exclusive pronoun we (excl.) ; 1PL.EXCL *kami k-4 Lynch et al. (2002:68) state that POc *kami ‘[…]sometimes occurred as *kai’. Reflexes of putative *kai also occur outside of the Oceanic subgroup. In the Bungku-Tolaki subgroup, for example, Mead (1998:154) gives 18 isolects with kami, mami and 11 isolects with kai, mai. The Moronene language has both ikami and ikai as free pronouns. Likewise, Moronene has genitive -mami/-mai and absolutive -kami/-kai). (In Moronene the forms without medial m are optionally used when certain enclitics attach to the pronoun.) Another area in which forms without medial m are known to occur is in the Barrier Islands where Enggano has ʔai and Mentawai has kai. Based on such forms, it seems possible to reconstruct the reduced variant *kai to PMP. Among the RM languages most nRote languages show only reflexes of *kami, while wRM, Ba'a, Tii and Lole have reflexes of *kai. People, pronouns ami (J:10) ami ami ami ami ami ai ai ai hai hai hai hai {2} =kai hai (M:135) kami ami (Mo:4) 402 *kamiri Rote candlenut tree: |ui{Aleurites moluccana} candlenut *kamiri This reconstruction is not without its problems and reflexes may have been distributed by Malay, though Blust and Trussel (ongoing) note ‘[Malay borrowing] is much harder to argue for Hanunóo, since the term is unknown in many Philippine languages that have borrowed much more heavily from Malay.’. k-1 *ri > ʔa in Termanu, Bokai, and Ba'a; *k > ŋɡ in Oenale The reflexes in eastern Timor point to earlier **kamiRi. Plants, edible kamiʔa (J:220) kamiʔa kamili (kamia ?) kamiʔa kamiri kamili ŋɡamiri kamii(n), kmii (Mo:100) 403 *kambe PRM saliva, spittle saliva ; spittle *kambeR PCMP (own reconstruction) k-4 *e > u in Dela I have tentatively reconstructed final *e (rather than *ə) as this best explains the forms in Rote-Meto, Ili'uun and central Maluku. However, it seems unlikely that *e can account for the Central Timor forms or the alternate Tetun form kaban. May be connected with PMP *ibəR ‘saliva in the mouth; drool; desire, crave, lust for’. Body, emission ape (J:14) ape ape ape ape=na ape ape ampe ambe hambu oe-ʔ hape hape hape (M:139) hape kapen kaba-n, kabe-n, kabuee-n (Mo:91) ape(n) (dJ:112) apar aba-r aba-t been 404 *kambu PwRM belly, uterus belly ; uterus ; pregnant *kambu ‘lower stomach, bladder’ k-2b Body, internal organs (ʔ)ambu-ʔ ʔambu-ʔ ʔambu-ʔ na-kapuʔ ʔapu-f {2} na-ʔapuʔ ʔapu-f {2} (M:27) na-ʔaup ʔapu-f kabu-n (Mo:93) kapun (dJ:120) ʔapun 405 *kandi PwRM whetstone whetstone k-2b Warfare and hunting (ʔ)andi ʔandi ʔandi kari ʔaki ʔaki (M:14) kadi (Mo:94) kaʧi (dJ:120) aʈi ETimor, Wetar, SW Maluku 406 *kao PRM scrape, scratch scrape ; scratch *kaRaw Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct many forms of a similar shape which mean ‘scrape, scratch’: PMP *kaRus, PMP *gadus, PMP *garut, PWMP *kaus, PWMP *kərud, PWMP *kərus, PMP *kaRud, PAN *karut, PWMP *aRud, PWMP *karus. Of these, the RM reflexes would be regular from *kaRaw. k-1/2a *k > ŋɡ in Dengka Actions kao (J:221) kao kao kao ŋɡao n-kao kao kau (On:197) 407 *kara *kara-k nRM chest chest **karas pre-RM k-2b Body, torso kala-ʔ ara-ʔ ara-ʔ kala-k kara-k kan/sao-f ʔan/sao-f ʔan/sao-n (M:145,360) ʔa/sao-f kalas karas (Mo:101) kakara Helong, ETimor 408 *karu *ka~karu Rote scrape, rasp; scratch scratch ; scrape *karut Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct many forms of a similar shape which mean ‘scrape, scratch’: PMP *gadus, PMP *garut, PWMP *kaus, PAN *kaRus, PWMP *kərud, PWMP *kərus, PMP *kaRud, PWMP *aRud, PWMP *karus. Of these, the RM reflexes would be most regular from *karut or *gadus. k-1/2/3ʹ (Dengka ʔ Oenale k correspondence; expect both to have either ʔ for pattern 2/3, or k for pattern 1) Actions ka~kalu (J:220) ka~kalu ka~kalu ka~kalu (ʔ)a~(ʔ)aru ka~kalu ka~karu (ʔ)a~(ʔ)alu ka~karu kalo haruk 409 *kase PMeto foreigner, foreign foreigner k-1/2a This is probably a borrowing from Meto into Kemak. Waima'a has raising of final *a > o in open syllables, from which final u could further be derived. Similarly, Meto has sporadic raising of *a > e in final open syllables. Kemak, however, does not have such sound changes thus suggesting pre-Meto **kasa with *a > e in Meto and subsequent borrowing into Kemak. It could be that the original meaning was ‘person’. This meaning occurs in the Meto phrase kase ʔnaek literally ‘great foreigner’ (Amarasi kaes koʔu) which is used poetically to refer to any highly honoured dignitary, including members of the Atoni ethnolinguistic group. People kase kase kase (M:182) kase wasa-kasu kase ETimor, CTimor 410 *katefuan CERM wasp, hornet wasp ; hornet *tabuqan ‘yellow-jacket wasp’ k-2b *a > e in Termanu and Landu consonant metathesis *kVt > tVk in Termanu and Landu The source of initial *kate is unclear, but reflexes of *kate- occur with at least two other biting insect terms (see the note for the Termanu reflex). Jonker connects it with Termanu kete ‘itch’, (probably from PMP *gatəl) and this is possible. Creatures, bugs, insects, insects with wings, creature taxon teke/fua-k (J:614) tekefua-ʔ katfua|ʔ ʔatfuan ʔatfuan (M:32) ʔaetfuan tohan 411 *katə PRM itch, feel itchy itchy *gatəl k-3 *a > e in Rote *ə > e /σ_# in wRote (perhaps *ə > *a > e /_#) *ŋɡete Body, sickness kete {2} na-kete {3} ma-kete {4} ma-kete-k (J:232f) kete kete kete ʔete kete kete (ʔ)ete ʔete ma-ʔete-ʔ ma|hata|ʔ ma|hata|ʔ n-ma|haat (M:140) ma|haat katen katal, katar (Mo:103) akal katal 412 *kati PRM call a dog call ; summon *kati PCMP k-3ʹ (*k = k in Dela-Oenale; expect *k > ʔ) Speech and language kati (J:223) kati kati kati (ʔ)a~(ʔ)ati kati kati (ʔ)a~(ʔ)ati ka~kati kati-ʔ n-haet {2} ka= ha~hati (M:135) n-hait 413 *kea PRM turtle turtle ; tortoise *keRa ‘hawksbill turtle’ PCEMP k-2a *a > e /_# in wRM Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon kea (J:225) kea kea kea kea ʔea kea kea (ʔ)ee ʔee ʔee kee kee, kea , (M:191) 414 *kees *na-kees CERM squeeze around the waist squeeze k-1/2a Actions na-kee (J:225) na-kee na-ee na-kes~kees na-kees kees Helong 415 *kei PRM tickle tickle ; touch k-3ʹ (*k = k in wRote and Rikou; expect *k > ʔ) Sense perception na-la-kei (J:228) na-la-kei na-la-kei na-la-kei ke~kei na-la-kei na-la-kei keis keis keis mahei mahei, mahai 416 *keʔe PnRote knead knead *gəmgəm k-2/3 *g > *ʔ *ə > *e /_# *kame, *keme, *kumu₂, *ŋɡumu Actions keʔe {2} ke~keʔe (J:227) keʔe kee (ʔ)ee keʔe keʔe 417 *kela Rote leave behind leave k-4 Motion ela (J:111) ela ela kela ela ela ela hela hela hela (Mo:85) kera ETimor, Hawu-Dhao 418 *kelas *ka-kelas PRM winter melon Benincasa hispida melon, winter ; gourd k-irr. *k > *ŋɡ in nRote; *a > e Meto This is the only known form with a nRote *ŋɡ = wRM *h correspondence set. We could propose PRM *g to account for this correspondence, though in the absence of additional examples of this correspondence set I prefer not to posit an additional PRM proto-phoneme. Plants, edible plants, vegetables, gourds ŋɡelas (J:437) ŋɡela-ʔ ŋela-k ŋela-k kelas ŋɡelas helas helas heens ʔ|henes keliŋ (dJ:121) hala Wetar, Flores, Bima 419 *kele CERM pant, breathe heavily pant ; breathe ; neigh ; whinny k-3 Termanu and Tii have ŋɡile ‘heavy breathing like a sick person, panting’ which may be related. Body, emission kele~kele kele~kele na-ʔheneʔ (M:145) 420 *keme Rote knead knead *gəmgəm k-2/3 *ə > *e /_# *kame, *keʔe, *kumu₂, *ŋɡumu Actions keme {2} ke~keme (J:230) keme keme keme keme keme keme (ʔ)eme (ʔ)eme 421 *ke(m)i PRM 2PL nominative, you all you (pl.) ; 2PL *kamuyu k-4 The loss of medial *m in wRM, Ba'a, Tii, and Lole is parallel to the loss of medial *m in the first person plural exclusive pronoun. People, pronouns emi (J:113) kemi kemi kemi emi emi ei ei ei hei hei hii hii {2} =kii hii (M:147) hei mia, mi emi, imi (Mo:29) imi muu miu, mi 422 *keni *keni-k Rote keel keel k-2/3 Motion, boats keni-k (J:231) keni-ʔ keni-k keni-ʔ ʔeni keni-k keni-k (ʔ)eni (ʔ)eni kəni Hawu-Dhao 423 *kendi *ma-(sa)-kendi-k nRM slippery, smooth slippery ; smooth k-2b The Meto alternates without s are reflexes of *ma-kendi-k. Sense perception masakeni (Fox 2016b:32) masakendi-k maskeri|ʔ masʔeki|ʔ {2} maʔeki|ʔ maʔeki|ʔ (M:296) 424 *keŋɡa *keŋɡa-k PRM kind of sea-weed seaweed k-irr. *k > Ø/ʔ /#_ in nRote (expect *k = k in all except Rikou) Plants eŋa-k (J:114) eŋa-ʔ eŋa-k eŋa-ʔ eka-ʔ eŋɡa-k eŋɡa-k (ʔ)eŋɡa-ʔ ʔeŋɡa-ʔ ʔeŋɡa-ʔ keka|ʔ kəka Hawu-Dhao 425 *kepe PMeto tick (parasite) tick Creatures, bugs, insects, louse, creature taxon kepe kepe Flores 426 *kera₁ PRM brother-in-law brother-in-law k-1 People, kin kela (J:229) kela kela kela ʔera kela kera kela kera ken/baʔe kela kela kela (On:558) hera Helong, Flores, Bima, Sumba, CTimor 427 *kera₂ *ma-kera Rote tickle tickle ; ticklish k-1 Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct a number of similar forms: *gidik, *giri, *kidi, and *kirik. Sense perception ma-kelas {2} ma-kela (J:230) ma-kela-ʔ ma-kela-ʔ ma-kela-ʔ ma-eras ma-kelas ma-kera-k ma-kelas kede kakedek, kede (Mo:95) Helong, ETimor 428 *kerumatu *kerumatu-k Rote leech leech *kalimatək ‘jungle leech Haemadipsa species’ k-2/3 *ə > *u Initial *keru in Rote may be related to the original *qali-/*kali- prefix, though this requires irregular sound changes, most problematically *l > *r, and *i > *u which are not otherwise attested. Osmond (2011b:414) reconstructs Proto-Polynesian *kele-mutu ‘earthworm, grub’ which also attests a similar initial element as well as final *ə > u. Creatures, bugs, creature taxon kelumatu-k (J:230) kelumatu-k kelumatu-ʔ (ʔ)erumatu-ʔ kelumatu-k (kelumatu-k ?) (ʔ)elumutu-ʔ matak (Mo:139) makak (dJ:126) 429 *kesu/fani PRM sneeze sneeze *bañən Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct three similar forms: *bañən, *bañan and *bəñan. k-2b vowel height harmony *e > i /_Cu in nRote and Ro'is Amarasi The source of initial *kesu is currently unknown. Body, emission kisu/fani (J:239f) kisu/fani kisu/fani kisu/fani ʔisu/fani kisu/fani kisu/fani (ʔ)esu/fani (ʔ)esu/fani ʔesu/fani n-kius/fani, n-kis/fani n-ʔeus/fani n-ʔeus/fani (M:105) haŋi fani 430 *ketembau PRM kind of insect insect, kind k-2a *au > *u in Meto; vowel metathesis in Meto *eCu > *uCe (*ketembau > Proto-Meto *ketepu > ketupe) Creatures, bugs, insects ketepau-ʔ tekepau-ʔ etepau-ʔ ketempau-k ketembau-k (ʔ)etembau-ʔ ʔetembau-ʔ ʔetembau ketupe 431 *ketu PRM break off, pluck off cut off ; break off *kətuq ‘pick, pluck, break off’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) also reconstruct PAN *kətun ‘cut, sever’ on the basis of Formosan reflexes. k-2a Actions ketu (J:234) ketu ketu ketu ʔetu ketu ketu (ʔ)etu ʔetu n-ketu n-ketu (M:203) kotu (Mo:117) 432 *ketu|k PMeto bedbug bedbug k-2b Creatures, bugs, insects, louse, creature taxon ketuʔ ʔetuʔ, ʔetuk (M:105) ʔeto 433 *kənda PRM close (v.) close (v.) k-2b *nd > n /ə_ in Rikou, Oepao, Landu, Lole, Tii, and wRote Spatial relations kena (J:231) kena kena kena (ʔ)ena ena (ʔ)ena kena kena kena (ʔ)ena ʔena ʔena na-kera na-ʔeka {2} n-ʔeka na-ʔeka {2} n-ʔeka (M:99) 434 *kibo Rote edible shellfish shellfish *qibaw Regarding initial PMP *q Blust and Trussel (ongoing) state: ‘Wolio hiwo is a loan from one of the languages of the Munic group (van den Berg 1991). Although such a phonologically irregular form would not normally be cited in the main comparison, in this case it serves to disambiguate the stem-initial phoneme as *q.’ The Bokai and Dengka forms provide evidence for initial *k rather than *q. However, the irregularities in the Rote forms caution against using them as deciding witnesses for initial *q or *k in PMP. It is also possible that the initial k in Bokai and Dengka is a reflex of the nominal *ka- prefix. k-irr. *Ø > *k (accretion of nominal prefix *ka- ?) *b = b in Rikou and Bilbaa; *k > Ø in all nRote except Bokai (expect *k = k in all except Rikou), Dengka k Oenale ʔ/Ø correspondence (expect both to have k or ʔ/Ø) Creatures, aquatic (ʔ)ifo(-k) (J:200) (ʔ)ifo kifo (ʔ)ibo (ʔ)ibo (ʔ)ifo (ʔ)ifo kifo (ʔ)ifo 435 *kii PnRote left side or direction left ; north *ka-wiRi k-1/2/3 *ɗii₁ Spatial relations kii (J:234f) kii kii kii ʔii kii kii kii 436 *kili *ki~kili Rote tickle tickle *kilik k-1 Sense perception ki~kili (J:237) ki~kili ki~kili ki~kili ki~kili ki~kili ki~kili ki~kili ki~kili hakili(k), kili (Mo:117) 437 *kilu Rote crooked, twisted crooked ; twisted *kiluq ‘bend, curve; bent, curved, crooked’ k-1 Spatial relations kilu (ka~)kaʔi {2} kilu hoʔe-k {3} kilu koʔe-k (J:237f) kilu kaʔi kilu kaʔi (ʔ)ilu ai kilu kaʔi kilu kai kilu kai kilu kai bkilu 438 *kima nRM giant clam Tridacna gigas clam *kima k-1/2aʹ (*k > ʔ in Tii, expect *k = k) *k > ʔ /#_ in Tii Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon kima (J:238) kima kima kima ʔima kima (ʔ)ima kimaʔ (M:208) kima (Mo:107) 439 *kiŋɡi *ki~kiŋɡi PRM cockroach cockroach k-irr. *k > h in all nRote except Tii; *ŋɡ > r in Ro'is Amarasi The Ro'is Amarasi form would be regular from earlier medial **nd. Perhaps a case of dissimilation of *ŋɡ > *nd /k_ in Meto. Compare #kari ‘kidneys’. Similarly, compare *maŋɡu₂ ‘dry fruit skin’ which shows irr. *ŋɡ > nd in wRote and Tii. Creatures, bugs, insects, insects with wings, creature taxon hi~hiŋi (J:185) hi~hiŋi hi~hiŋi hi~hiŋi hi~hiki hi~hiŋɡi hi~hiŋɡi (ʔ)i~(ʔ)iŋɡi (ʔ)i~(ʔ)iŋɡi ʔi~ʔiŋɡi ʔi~ʔiŋɡi kir~kiri ik~iki iki (M:159) 440 *kira₁ Rote hold hold k-2/3 Possession kila (J:236) kila kila kila ʔira kila kira (ʔ)ila ʔira ma-ʔira-ʔ {2} na-sa-ʔira kila Helong 441 *kira₂ Rote stingy stingy k-2/3ʹ (*k > ʔ in Tii; expect *k = k) *k > ʔ /#_ in Tii Quantity kila (J:237) kila kila kila ʔira kila (ʔ)ira (ʔ)ila ʔira ʔira kilaʔ Helong 442 *kiri₁ *kiri_ei-k Rote little bells bell *giRiŋ ‘ringing sound’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) only give Paiwan giriŋ ‘growl’ and Batak giriŋ ‘bell’ as evidence for their reconstruction. They note that Paiwan *R > r is irregular. k-1/2/3ʹ (Dengka ʔ Oenale k correspondence; expect both to have either ʔ for pattern 2/3, or k for pattern 1) *R = *r (expect Ø) Blust and Trussel (ongoing) also reconstruct Proto-Philippine *kilíŋ ‘ringing of a bell’. The final element may be connected with Rote ei-k ‘leg, foot’ with the original meaning being ‘bells on ankles’ (like in Malay) with later shift to ‘bells on a horse’s neck’. Clothing and grooming kili_ei-k, kila_ei-k, kil/ei-k (J:237) kili_ei-k kili_ei-ʔ (ʔ)iri_ei-ʔ kili_ei-k ki~kir/ei-k (ʔ)i~(ʔ)ilel/ei-ʔ kiri_ei-ʔ 443 *kiri₂ PRM sharpen to have a point sharpen k-2bʹ (*k = k in Kotos Amarasi, expect *k > ʔ) Sense perception kili (J:237) kili kili kili kiri (ʔ)ili ʔiri ʔiri n-kini n-ʔini (M:160) 444 *kisa *kisa-k CER single, unique unique k-1/2/3 Quantity kisa-k (J:238) kisa-ʔ kisa-k kisa Helong 445 *kisi PRM peel, remove skin peel k-irr. *k > Ø in Rote except Rikou (expect other nRote *k = k, wRote *k > ʔ) Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PCMP *isi ‘peel, strip off’ on the basis of the Termanu form and some Oceanic forms. They also list this cognate set as noise. The Ro'is (and Helong) forms indicate an initial *k, though this *k is irregularly lost in Rote. Food and drink na-isi {2} nisi (J:207, 398) na-isi {2} nisi na-isi {2} nisi na-isi {2} nisi na-isi {2} nisi na-isi {2} nisi na-isi {2} nisi (na-)isi na-isi n-kisi n-ʔisi (M:162) kisi Helong 446 *kita PRM 1PL.INCL we (incl.) ; 1PL.INCL *kita₁ k-4 People, pronouns ita (J:207) ita ita ita ita ita ita ita hita hita hiit hiit, hiti, hita {2} =kiit, =kiti, =kita hiit (M:149) hita, hiat kit ita (Mo:91) 447 *klaha *klaha-k PRM glowing coals coals ; embers **klaRa pre-RM k-1 *R > *h (also in *taha and *noh) regular *h > Ø /a_a in Rote, regular *kl > Rote k Meto kr/kl Physical world, fire haʔi_kaa-k {2} pana_kaa-k (J:209) haʔi_kaa-ʔ {2} pana_kaa-ʔ haʔi_kaa-k {2} pana_kaa-k ai_kaa-ʔ {2} idu_kaa-ʔ ai_ʔaa-ʔ {2} idu_ʔaa-ʔ haʔi_kaa-k {2} idu_kaa-k, mpinu-kaa-k aʔi_kaa-k {2} iɗu_kaa-k ai_kaa-ʔ {2} mbana_kaa-ʔ ai_kaa {2} mbana_kaa-ʔ kraha|ʔ kraha|ʔ na-klaah {2} klaha|ʔ {3} a-klaha-t (M:214) klaak ahi klaak (Mo:108) klara (dJ:121) ETimor, Wetar 448 *kleet *na-kleet CERM mock, tease mock ; tease k-1 glottal stop insertion in Meto regular *kl > Rote k Meto kr/kl Speech and language na-ke~kee-k (J:225) na-kreʔet 449 *klou PRM bow (e.g. bow and arrow) bow (arrow) k-1 regular *kl > Rote k Meto kr/kl Warfare and hunting ko~kou-k {2} kou (J:253) ko~kou-ʔ ko~kou-k ko~kou-ʔ ʔo~ʔou-ʔ ko~kou-k ko~kou-k ko~kou-ʔ ko~kou-ʔ krau-t na-klau {2} a-klau-t (M:216) 450 *koaʔ₁ PRM Friarbird Philemon species bird, Friarbird ; Friarbird k-1 onomatopoeia Creatures, birds, creature taxon koa, koaʔ (J:241) koa, koaʔ koa, koaʔ koa, koaʔ koa, koaʔ koa, koaʔ koa, koaʔ koa, koaʔ koa, koaʔ koaʔ {2} koa koʔu {3} koa maat meʔe koaʔ {2} koa kikoʔ {3} koa koʔu kool (M:225) koaʔ koʔak kau-koʔak (Mo:104) koak Helong, ETimor, CTimor 451 *koaʔ₂ PRM cry out loudly cry out k-2aʹ (*k = k in Rikou, expect *k > ʔ/Ø) onomatopoeia Speech and language ko~koa (J:242) ko~koa ko~koa ko~koʔoa ko~koa ko~koa (ʔ)o~(ʔ)oa na-ʔoa n-koaʔ n-koaʔ (M:225) 452 *koɓa PRM cover cover k-2a *o > u in Meto; *a > o in Rote Spatial relations kobo (J:243) kobo kobo kobo ʔobo kobo koɓo (ʔ)obo ʔoɓo ʔoɓo n-kuba n-kuub (M:243) 453 *kodo PRM bird bird d-2, k-1 Creatures, birds kolo/baʔo-k (J:536) kolo/bako-ʔ kolo/baʔo-k kolo/bako-ʔ koro/bako-ʔ kolo/baʔo-k koro/ɓako-k kolo/baʔo-ʔ koro/ɓako-ʔ koro koro kolo (M:232) koro koro ʄawa Flores, Hawu-Dhao 454 *koɗe PRM monkey monkey k-2a vowel metathesis in Meto *oCe > eCo Creatures, bugs, creature taxon kode (J:243) kode kode kode kode ʔode kode koɗe (ʔ)oɗe (ʔ)oɗe ʔoɗe kero kero kelo Flores 455 *koɗo PRM swallow swallow k-2b Lynch (2001:339) reconstructs Proto-Meso-Melanesian *kodom which may be connected. This term is connected to a larger network of phonetically similar terms. Food and drink kodo (J:244) kodo kodo kodo ʔodo kodo koɗo (ʔ)oɗo ʔoɗo ʔoɗo n-koro n-ʔoro n-ʔolo (M:404) holo koɗo Helong, ETimor, Hawu-Dhao 456 *koko Rote carry in hand carry initial k-2/3, medial k-8/9 Motion koʔo (J:250) koʔo koʔo koko (ʔ)oʔo koʔo koʔo (ʔ)oʔo ʔoʔo ʔoʔo koko Helong, Sulawesi 457 *kola *kola-ʔ PwRM hole hole k-1 *a > o in wRote (positing irr. *a > o can be motivated as a sporadic case of assimilation in wRote, while alternate *o > a in Meto would be unmotivated) Spatial relations kolo-ʔ kolo-ʔ kona|ʔ kona|ʔ kona|ʔ (M:234) 458 *komba PwRM pour out pour k-2b *a > o in Dela (sporadic assimilation?) Actions ʔombo n-kopaʔ n-ʔopaʔ n-ʔopan (M:407) 459 *kona Rote right (side), south right *kawanan ‘right (side, hand, direction)’ k-2/3 Spatial relations kona (J:249) kona kona kona ʔona kona kona (ʔ)ona ʔona ʔona kanan kwana kuana (Mo:120) keɠana, ɠana 460 *koo₁ *koo-k Rote ber tree Ziziphus mauritiana |ui{Ziziphus mauritiana} k-2/3ʹ (*k = k in Rikou; expect *k > ʔ/Ø) Kupang Malay attests a final m which may have originally been present in pre-RM. Plants, tree, plant taxon koo-k (J:241) koo-ʔ koo-k koo-ʔ koo-ʔ koo-k koo-k (ʔ)oo-ʔ (ʔ)oo-ʔ koon koo Helong, Hawu-Dhao 461 *koo₂ PRM 2SG, you you (sg.) ; 2SG *kahu k-4 People, pronouns oo (J:450) koo koo koo oo oo oo oo oo hoo hoo hoo hoo hoo {2} =koo hoo (M:149) hoo ku oo (Mo:155) 462 *koro *ko~koro-k PRM Rainbow Bee-eater Merops ornatus bird, Rainbow Bee-eater k-1ʹ (*k > Ø/ʔ in Meto, expect *k = k) wRote k = Meto ʔ/Ø correspondence Creatures, birds, creature taxon ko~kolo-k (J:248) ko~kolo-ʔ ko~kolo-k ko~kolo-ʔ ʔo~ʔoro-ʔ ko~kolo-k ko~koro-k ko~kolo-ʔ ko~koro-ʔ on~ono|ʔ on~ono|ʔ 463 *koru PRM strip leaves or grain from branch, harvest rice harvest ; strip leaves k-3 Plants, agriculture kolu (J:248) kolu kolu kolu ʔoru kolu koru (ʔ)olu ʔoru ʔoru n-honu {2} n-ono honu (M:153) nulu Helong 464 *kose Rote rub, wipe rub ; wipe k-2/3 Actions ko~kose (J:251f) ko~kose ko~kose ko~kose ʔo~ʔose ko~kose ko~kose (ʔ)o~(ʔ)ose ʔo~ʔose ʔose koos kose (Mo:117) kose (dJ:121) kose Helong, ETimor, Wetar, Hawu-Dhao 465 *koti PRM cut cut *koti ‘cut off’ PCEMP (own reconstruction) k-irr. *k > Ø in nRote except Rikou (expect *k = k) vowel height harmony *i > e /oC_ in Meto Actions oti (J:459) oti oti oti oti oti oti (ʔ)oti ʔoti ʔoti n-kote n-ʔote n-ʔote (M:408) ʔoet 466 *k|teom PMeto sea urchin sea urchin **tayum pre-RM To account for the apparently irregular correspondence between pre-RM **tayum, PMeto *k|teom and Tetun teon we could posit vowel height harmony of *u > o /e_. However, this is a rare pattern of vowel height harmony. *tii Creatures, aquatic k|teom k|teom tiu/ʔoe teo(n) (Mo:184) Helong, ETimor, Flores 467 *kua *ku~kua-k Rote nit nit k-2/3ʹ *u > o in Tii and wRote Creatures, bugs, insects, louse, creature taxon ku~kua-k (J:254) ku~kua-ʔ ku~kua-k ku~kua-ʔ u~ua-ʔ ku~kua-k ko~koa-k (ʔ)o~(ʔ)oa-ʔ ʔo~ʔoa-ʔ ʔo~ʔoa-ʔ kuar (Mo:120) ETimor 468 *kue Rote civet civet k-2/3 Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon kue (J:255) kue kue kue (ʔ)ue kue kue (ʔ)ue (ʔ)ue 469 *kuku PRM finger, toe finger ; toe *kuhkuh ‘claw, talon, fingernail’ initial k-3, medial k-10 Body, limbs kuʔu-k {2} kuku_haa-k, kuku_telu-k (J:259, 256) kuʔu {2} kuku_haa-ʔ, kuku_telu-ʔ kuʔu-k {2} kuku_haa-k, kuku_telu-k kuku-ʔ {2} kuku_haa-ʔ, kuku_telu-ʔ lima kuku-ʔ ʔuʔu {2} ʔuʔu_haa-ʔ, ʔuʔu_telu-ʔ kuʔu-k {2} kuku_haa-k, kuku_telu-k kuku-k {2} kuku_haa-k, kuku_telu-k (ʔ)uʔu ʔuʔu ʔuʔu-ʔ huku (M:155) kuʔu (Mo:122) huʔu-t kolo kuʔu kaba kuʔu 470 *kukur PRM wallow wallow initial k-1, medial k-5 Creatures kuku (J:255) kuku kuku kuku ʔu~ʔuʔu kuku kuku kuku kukur n-kuku n-kuku (M:245) 471 *kumu₁ PMeto wild pigeon, wild dove pigeon, wild ; dove, wild **kumu pre-RM k-1/2a onomatopoeia Creatures, birds, creature taxon kumu kumu kumu {2} (M:248) aʔumab umu manu¯kumu, kumo ETimor, Oceanic 472 *kumu₂ *ku~kumu Rote make a fist fist ; knead *gəmgəm ‘fist; hold in the fist’ k-2/3 *ə > *u (sporadic assimilation to previous velar consonant and/or following labial consonant) The Tii and Oenale forms additionally mean ‘knead’ (Jonker 1908:714). *kame, *keʔe, *keme, *ŋɡumu Actions ku~kumu (J:257f) ku~kumu ku~kumu ku~kumu (ʔ)u~(ʔ)umu ku~kumu ku~kumu (ʔ)u~(ʔ)umu ʔu~ʔumu ʔu~ʔumu kumu kumu (Mo:121) akam 473 *kuna PwRM hide in folds of clothing hide k-1 The Meto unmetathesised form has not yet been attested. It could be *kuna or *kunu. Spatial relations ku~kuna ku~kuna na-kuun 474 *kuni *kuni-k PRM turmeric turmeric *kunij k-4ʹ (*k = k in Termanu, Landu, Ba'a, and Lole; expect *k > Ø) Plants, edible kuni-k (J:258) kuni-ʔ kuni-k kuni-ʔ kuni uni-ʔ kuni-k kuni-k uni-k huni-ʔ huni-ʔ hu͡ini|k huni|k (M:155) kinur kinur {2} kinu, hinu (Mo:86, 107) 475 *kunu₁ PMeto breadfruit breadfruit *kuluR k-1/2a Ø > *m in Ro'is Amarasi Plants, tree, plant taxon kunum (M:251) kuluʔ {2} kulu naunuʔ kulu (Mo:121) 476 *kunu₂ Rote kind of plant plant, kind k-irr. *k > Ø /#_ in wRote (expect k or ʔ) Plants kunu (J:258) kunu kunu kunu kunu kunu unu unu unu hau anaʔ kunu Helong 477 *kupu PMeto fog fog k-1/2a Jonker (1908:230) compares the Meto forms with Termanu, Korbafo, Bokai kelupua ‘become murky of water’, Ba'a kelempua, and Dengka, Oenale elembua, but the sound correspondences and semantics are too much of a stretch for me. Physical world, water kupu kupu {2} pupu kuput Helong, CTimor, Oceanic 478 *kura *kura-k Rote scorpion scorpion **sakuraŋ pre-RM k-2/3ʹ possibly connected with PMP *qudaŋ ‘shrimp, crayfish, lobster’ Creatures, bugs, arachnids kula-k (J:256) kula-ʔ kula-k kula-ʔ kura-ʔ ura-ʔ kula-k kura-k (ʔ)ula-ʔ ʔura-ʔ ʔura-ʔ khulaŋ hkulaŋ sakunar (Mo:165) saʔuro sayorne kəru Helong, ETimor, SW Maluku, Flores, Hawu-Dhao 479 *kurə *ka-kurə-k PRM clay/stone jar or pot pot ; jar *kudən ‘clay cooking pot’ k-4 House ule-k (J:665) ule-ʔ ule-k kule-ʔ ure-ʔ ule-k ure-k hula-ʔ hura-ʔ ʔ|huna|ʔ oe (M:156) 480 *kuru₁ PRM call chickens, summon chickens call chickens *kur(u) ‘word used to call chickens, etc.’ k-1 *u > o in all Rote except Korbafo and Tii (assimilation to following *roroo) All varieties with lowering of *u > o attest a second element derivable from *roroo except for Dengka which would require irr. *r > ɗ. onomatopoeia Speech and language kolo/loloo (J:248) kulu~kulu kolo/loloo koro/ruruu kolo/loloo kuru~kuru, ku~kuru kolo/ɗoɗoo, ko~kolo koro/roroo 481 *kuru₂ Rote wrinkly wrinkly *kurut ‘curly-haired’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) also reconstruct *kulut ‘curly haired’ and PWMP *kərut ‘shrivelled, wrinkled’. k-1/2/3 *r > *nd in Tii and Ba'a Tii and Ba'a attest *kundu, others attest *kuru, the Rikou alternate form with medial l is irregular from both these forms. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PWMP *kərut ‘shrivelled, wrinkled’ on the basis of Malay kərut and Pamona koru. They give an apparent doublet *kədut, for which I cannot find a main entry. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) assign the Termanu form to PMP *kuluŋ ‘curl, curve’ where it is one of three languages attesting this reconstruction, but this reconstruction cannot account for the reflexes in other varieties of Rote. Sense perception ku~kulu {2} ku~kulu-k (J:258) ku~kulu ku~kulu ku~kulu (ʔ)u~(ʔ)uru, (ʔ)u~(ʔ)ulu ku~kunu ku~kundu ku~kulu ku~kuru kurut (Mo:122) 482 *kurus PRM chilli chilli k-2bʹ (*k = k in Kusa-Manea; expect *k > ʔ/Ø) Plants, edible plants, vegetables kulus (J:257) kuluʔ kuluʔ kuluʔ ʔurus kulus kurus kunus ʔunus kunus kulus °kunus (Mo:121) uus Helong, Flores, CTimor 483 *kuta PnRote close eyes close eyes k-1/2/3 Body na-kuta (J:256) na-kuta na-kuta (na-kuta ?) huta Helong 484 *kutə *kutə-k Rote brains, mantle brains ; mantle *hutək ‘brain, marrow’ k-2bʹ (*k > ʔ in Tii, expect *k = k) Ø > *k *ə > a in Termanu Korbafo, and Bilbaa The initial *k may be from the nominal prefix *ka- prefix. It is possible that PMP *hutək spit into a doublet in PRM: *kuta-k ‘mantle’ and *(k)utə-k ‘brains’. Body, head kuta-k (J:258) kuta-ʔ kuta-ʔ (ʔ)ute-k (ʔ)ute-k (ʔ)uta-ʔ ʔuta-ʔ ʔuta-ʔ kuta ka~kutak (Mo:98) gutan {2} ai gutan (dJ:115) 485 *kutu PRM head-louse louse, head *kutu k-4 Creatures, bugs, insects, louse, creature taxon utu (J:672) utu utu utu utu utu utu utu hutu hutu hutu hutu hutu hutu (M:157) hutu kutu utu (Mo:194) uku 486 *kutus PRM windstorm, cyclone, whirlwind storm ; cyclone ; whirlwind k-irr. *k > n in Meto (fossilised prefix?) diphthongisation *u > au in most Meto One way to account for the initial nasal in Meto would be to reconstruct PRM *ŋ, but this would require unexpected *ŋ > k in the Rote languages (expect *ŋ > n) and unexpected *ŋ > n in Kusa-Manea (expect *ŋ > k). Physical world, weather kutus (J:259) kutu-ʔ kutu-ʔ kutu-ʔ utus kutus kutus (ʔ)utus (ʔ)utus nautus ain nautus {2} nautus, autus ani nautus (M:357) nutus 487 *kuu Rote blow the nose blow k-1 onomatopoeia *ŋɡuu Motion na-sa-kuu {2} kuu~kuu (J:253f) na-sa-kuu na-sa-kuu na-sa-uu na-sa-kuu na-sa-kuu na-sa-kuu 488 *kuun PRM kind of tall grass grass k-4ʹ (*k = k in Termanu, Ba'a, and Tii; expect *k > Ø) Plants ku/mea (J:257) ku/mea ku/mea ku/mee u/mee ku/mea ku/mea hu/mee hu/mee huu_musuʔ huun {2} huu_musuʔ huun (M:156) 489 *ʔ|fenu PMeto candlenut Aleurites moluccana candlenut **ka-felu pre-Meto Plants, edible fenu ʔ|fenu ʔ|fenu (M:116) fenu (On:201) Flores, Sumba 490 *ʔ|mauka|ʔ PnMeto cuscus cuscus *mansər PCEMP *a > *au *a > a ~ u The best reconstruction of the vowels is unclear, whatever form is posited requires positing irregularities. The Ketun (Nai'oni') form appears to attest penultimate *a, but if this is reconstructed it requires positing otherwise unattested *a > au in all other lects. I thus posit that Ketun (Nai'oni') ʔmakuʔ attests irregular reduction of the earlier diphthong. The reconstructed diphthong *au could come from earlier *u (i.e. earlier **muka) given that diphthongisation of penultimate vowels sporadically occurs in Meto. Reconstruction of final *a can account for reflexes with final u by assuming irregular assimilation to previous u in closed syllables. Reconstruction of final *u does not seem to be able to account for reflexes with final *a. This reconstruction is possibly consistent with PCEMP *mansər given PRM *nd > PMeto *r > Proto-Nuclear Meto k. (Though note that Proto-Nuclear Meto *k can also be a reflex of PRM *ŋɡ or *k.) However, if the hypothesis that penultimate *au is from earlier *u is correct, then comparison of *mansər with *ʔ|mauka|ʔ would require irregular initial *a > *u. *arum Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon ʔmaukuʔ (M:316,586) maukuʔ ʔmaukuʔ maukuʔ, maukaʔ ʔmaukaʔ, maukaʔ, ʔmaukuʔ ʔmakuʔ, ʔmaukaʔ °mauka kǀmeda meda (Mo:140) maʧa (dJ:127) mada, °meda la/mara 491 *ʔuta PwRM cut cut Actions (ʔ)u~(ʔ)uta ʔu~ʔuta ʔuta kˀuta ETimor 492 *laa₁ *laa-k PRM kind of tree tree, kind of vague semantics Plants, tree, plant taxon ka/laa-k (J:218) ka/laa-ʔ ka/laa-k ka/laa-ʔ la~laa-ʔ ka/laa-k la~laa-k la~laa-ʔ la~laa-ʔ , (M:338,26) 493 *laa₂ PRM temporary hut hut *l > r/l in Meto *VV-k > *VVʔ > VʔV in Meto (perceptual metathesis) House laa-k (J:261) laa-ʔ la~laa-k laa-ʔ laa-ʔ la~laa-k laa-k la~laa-ʔ laa-ʔ raʔa-t {2} n-raʔan laʔa-t (M:254) laen klaen, salaak (Mo:108) ETimor 494 *laa₃ Rote sail sail *layaR Motion, boats laa (J:260) laa laa laa laa laa laa laa laa laa laan (Mo:98) walara 495 *laa₄ PnRote fly fly (v.) *layap Motion laa (J:260) laa laa laa laa laa laa 496 *laa₅ *na-laa-k, *laa-k Rote open the eyes open the eyes *-lat ‘open the eyes wide’ Sense perception na-laa-k mata=na {2} mata laa-k (J:261) na-laa-ʔ na-laa-k na-laa-ʔ na-laa-k na-laa-k na-laa-ʔ na-laa-ʔ 497 *laɓa nRM wind around, of plants wind (v.) ; entwine *l > r/l in Meto Motion na-ka-(la~)laba (J:262) na-ka-laba na-ka-laba na-la~laba {2} na-laba na-ka-laba na-ka-laɓa k|raba-t n-laba {2} okan aklab~laba {3} n-buun ma na-klaab (M:254) raɓa Hawu-Dhao 498 *ladu PRM palm wine palm wine d-2 consonant metathesis **lVr > rVl in Dela-Oenale and Rikou That it is Dela-Oenale and Rikou which show consonant metathesis rather than Tii, is indicated by other reconstructions with *lVr which have cognates outside of the RM languages including: *lari ‘comb of rooster’ and *ledo ‘sun’ (PMP *qaləjaw) which have undergone the same consonant metathesis *lVr > rVl in Dela-Oenale and Rikou. Food and drink, palm lalu (J:274) lalu lalu lalu ralu lalu laru lalu ralu ralu raru lalu (M:260) 499 *lafa PRM kind of traditional cloth cloth, kind *a > e /_# in wRM Clothing and grooming lafa (J:267) lafa lafa lafa lafa lafa lafa lafe lafe lafe nafe lahan (Mo:123) ETimor 500 *lafo *ka-lafo PRM rat, mouse rat ; mouse *balabaw initial i ~ bi in Molo Creatures, bugs, creature taxon lafo (J:267f) lafo lafo lafo lafo lafo lafo lafo lafo lafo k|nafo k|nafo ifo, bifo (M:158) nafo nafo nafo blaho laho (Mo:123) 501 *laha *na-ma-laha, *laha-s CERM hungry hungry *lapaR This is the only form in which *h /a_a is not universally lost in Rote. Instead, it follows the pattern for *h between other vowels. Food and drink na-ma-laʔa {2} laʔas (J:262) na-ma-laʔa {2} laʔa-ʔ na-ma-laʔa {2} laʔa-ʔ na-ma-laa {2} laa-ʔ na-ma-laa na-ma-laa {2} laas na-ma-laa na-m|naha na-m|naha na-m|naha (M:325) na-m|naah halaʔa hamlaha (Mo:71) 502 *lai Rote run, flee; fast, quick run ; flee ; fast ; quick *laRiw ‘run, run away, flee, escape’ Motion na-lai {2} lai~lai (J:270, 268) na-lai {2} lai~lai na-lai {2} lai~lai na-lai {2} lai~lai na-lai {2} lai~lai na-lai {2} lai~lai na-lai {2} lai~lai {2} lai~lai {2} lai~lai lali lai~lais (Mo:123) 503 *laia PRM ginger ginger *laqia *a > e /_# in wRM (PwRM *laie) The Rote languages have reduced this to a disyllable by deletion of the antepenultimate vowel. In Meto both initial vowels were retained with subsequent doubling of the final vowel, probably to achieve a form composed of two disyllabic feet. The Meto reflexes additionally show expected consonant insertion to break up a disallowed sequence of three vowels. Plants, edible plants, vegetables lia (J:310) lia lia lia lia lia lia lie naiʤee naiʤeer naiʤee-l (M:342) naiyeeʔ °lai/ee ai lia (Mo:2) 504 *lako PRM go go *lakaw k-8 Motion laʔo (J:279f) laʔo laʔo lako laʔo laʔo laʔo lao lao n-nao n-nao n-nao (M:355) nao lako laʔo (Mo:127) la 505 *laʔi PwRM male, grandfather, king king ; grandfather ; male *laki ‘male, masculine; man’ People manu_lai manu_lai na͡iʔi|k naʔi-f {2} naiʔ {3} maun_nai {4} fe/nai {2} , {3} (M:342) naʔi lahi °naʔi {2} °naʔin °naʔi {2} °naʔin (Mo:145) 506 *laʔus *ka-laʔus PRM cactus cactus Plants laʔus (J:286) laʔu-ʔ lau-ʔ lau-ʔ laus laʔus laʔus laus laus ʔ|naus (M:357) klaus k(a)latun (Mo:98) oplakun Helong, ETimor, SW Maluku 507 *lalu *lalu-k PnRote cock, rooster rooster ; cock *laluŋ Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon manu_lalu-k (J:274) manu_lalu-ʔ manu_lalu-k manu_lalu-ʔ manu_lalu-ʔ manu_lalu-k manu_lalu-k 508 *lamat *ka-lamat PRM grasshopper grasshopper *l = l in Amanuban and Kusa-Manea The irregular retention of PRM *l as l in Amanuban may be due to early reduction of the antepenultimate syllable in *ka-lamat > **klamat, with subsequent loss of the initial consonant. Compare *kalusa, with reflexes klusa-n, and knusa-n in Amanuban from Kualiin village. Irregular initial l in Kusa-Manea may be due to borrowing from Kemak or antoher language with initial l. Creatures, bugs, insects, insects with wings, creature taxon lama-k (J:274) lama-ʔ lama-k lama-ʔ lama-ʔ lama-ʔ lama-k lama-k lamat lamat k|namat k|namat lamat lamat klamat klamat lˀama lamat Helong, ETimor, CTimor 509 *lamu CER seaweed species seaweed ; algae *lamut Blust and Trussel (ongoing) include ‘Rote’ lamu and Ngadha lamu form as evidence for both *lamut and the PMP ‘disjunct’ *lamu. *lamu is only otherwise supported by Malay lamu. Helong has similar hlamun ‘moss, lichen, algae, seaweed’ which is probably a reflex of PMP *lamun ‘swamp grass’. Plants lamu_doo-k (J:275) klamur (Mo:135) 510 *lani Rote heaven, firmament, air heaven ; firmament ; air *laŋit ‘sky’ *n > Ø in all except Oenale The irregular loss of medial *n in all varieties may be due to influence from semantically similar lain ‘upper part’, though this form may itself be from *lani with final *CV > VC metathesis. (Jonker suggests that the final n in lain is from the third person genitive enclitic =n). Jonker does not record Dengka as having lain ‘upper’. Physical world, sky la~lai (J:269) la~lai la~lai la~lai la~lai la~lai la~lai la~lai la~lai {2} lani la~lai {2} lani 511 *lanu Rote tired uncomfortable ; tired *laŋu ‘vertigo’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) include Termanu langu ‘langu-dizziness: expression in ritual language for serious illness’ (Fox 2016b:24) as evidence for this form, but this would require irregular retention of *ŋ. Body, sickness na-ma-lanu (J:279) na-ma-lanu na-ma-lanu na-ma-lanu na-ma-lanu lanu~lanu lanu {2} lanuk (Mo:127) melanu 512 *laŋɡa *ka-laŋɡa, *ka-laŋɡa-k PRM head hair head ; head hair Body, head laŋa {2} laŋa-k (J:276) laŋa laŋa laŋa laka-ʔ laka laŋɡa laŋɡa laŋɡa-ʔ laŋɡa-ʔ naka-f ʔ|naka-f ʔ|naka-f (M:344) klaam/buuʔ klaŋa laka/nuri {2} laka/nuri maka, nak/nuri makan {3} laka/nuri wiʔi, naknuri wiʔin gala-r, gə̆raa-ŋ, gara-r Helong, SW Maluku, CTimor 513 *laŋɡe PRM stocks, block of wood placed around the head of an animal to prevent it from moving or suckling stocks Creatures laŋe (J:278) laŋe laŋe laŋe lake laŋɡe laŋɡe laŋɡe laŋɡe nake nake (M:345) laŋe Helong 514 *lari₁ *lari-k PRM comb (of rooster) comb (rooster) *i > e in Kusa-Manea consonant metathesis *lVr > rVl in Dela-Oenale and Rikou Body, animal body lali-k (J:274) lali-ʔ lali-k lali-ʔ rali-ʔ lali-k lari-k lali-ʔ rali-ʔ nane-f lalit la~larit (Mo:125) lari Helong, ETimor, Hawu-Dhao 515 *lari₂ PRM move location move location *r > l in Tii and wRote; *r > l ~ r in Oepao and Rikou consonant metathesis *lVr > rVl in Rikou Possibly connected with PMP *laRiw with irregular *R > *r, but this etymon is retained regularly as *lai ‘run, fast’. Motion lali (J:273) lali lali lali lali, na-rali lali, na-lari lali lali lali lali lali na-naniʔ (M:349) lari Hawu-Dhao 516 *larum *ka-larum PRM variegated fig Ficus variegata |ui{Ficus variegata} consonant metathesis *lVr > rVl in Dela-Oenale and Rikou That it is Dela-Oenale and Rikou which show consonant metathesis rather than Tii, is indicated by other reconstructions with *lVr which have cognates outside of the RM languages including: *lari ‘comb of rooster’ and *ledo ‘sun’ (PMP *qaləjaw) which have undergone the same consonant metathesis *lVr > rVl in Dela-Oenale and Rikou. vague Rote semantics Plants, tree, plant taxon lalu (J:274) lalu lalu lalu ralu lalu laru lalu ralu ʔ|nanum (M:349) 517 *lasa PRM underlay underlay *l > r/l in Meto Spatial relations lasa (J:282) lasa lasa lasa lasa lasa lasa lasa lasa rasa|k n-lasan (M:263) 518 *lasə PRM scrotum and testicles scrotum ; testicles *lasəR (*ə) > *a > e /_# in Amarasi Body, limbs, legs, genitalia lase (J:283) lase lase lase lase lase lase lasa-ʔ lasa-ʔ nase-n nase-f (M:351) lasar (dJ:123) 519 *lasi₁ PRM forest, bush forest ; bush possibly connected with PMP *alas, though this connection would require positing irr. *a > Ø and irregular final i Physical world lasi (J:283) lasi lasi lasi lasi lasi lasi lasi lasi nasi nasi nasi (M:352) nais 520 *lasi₂ *ma-lasi-k, *na-ma-lasi PRM old, aged old Time lasi-k {2} na-ma-lasi (J:283) lasi-ʔ lasi-k lasi-k lasi-ʔ lasi-k lasi-k lasi-ʔ lasi-ʔ lasi-ʔ {2} na-ma-lasi m|nasi|ʔ m|nasi|ʔ {2} na-m|mnasi m|nasi|ʔ (M:325) m|nasi|ʔ {2} m|nasi-k 521 *latu₁ *ma-latu-k, *na-ma-latu PRM ripe ripe Food and drink latu-k {2} na-ma-latu (J:284) latu-ʔ latu-k latu-k latu-ʔ latu-k latu-k latu-ʔ latu-ʔ m|natu|ʔ m|natu|ʔ na-m|natu latuʔ keradu Helong, Hawu-Dhao 522 *latu₂ Rote edible seaweed species seaweed *latuq Plants, edible latu (J:284) latu latu latu latu latu latu latu latu 523 *lea *lea-k PnRote cave, cavern cave *liaŋ *i > *e *lua|t Physical world lea-k (J:288) lea-ʔ lea-k lea-ʔ lea-ʔ lea-k lea-k liaŋ 524 *ledo PRM sun, day sun ; day ; sky *qaləjaw ‘day’ *j > *d (expect *ɗ) consonant metathesis *lVr > rVl in Dela-Oenale Physical world, sky ledo {2} ledo-k {3} le~ledo-k (J:290f) ledo ledo ledo ledo ledo leɗo lelo relo relo {2} re~relo-ʔ neno neno neno (M:362) neno lelo loro (Mo:133) leo (dJ:124) ler(e) loɗo loɗo 525 *lee PRM river river *ee > oe in wRM (possibly influence from *oe ‘water’) Physical world, water lee (J:286) lee lee lee lee lee lee loe loe noe noe noe (M:377) noa 526 *leke *le~leke PRM coil up coil *ləkən ‘coil’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) only give a Cebuano and Buru form as supporting evidence. Other semantically and formally similar forms are discussed with their entry for *reken ‘coiled base on which hot cooking pots are set’ which is well supported. k-5 *ə > *e /_# (expect *ə > a in wRote, possibly *ə > *a > e) Motion le~leke (J:293) le~leke le~leke le~leke le~leʔe le~leke le~leke le~leke 527 *leko Rote lure in a crafty way lure k-5ʹ (*k > Ø in Rikou; expect ʔ or k) Warfare and hunting leko (J:293) leko leko leko leo leko leko leko leko leko Hawu-Dhao 528 *leku PRM winding, coiling winding ; coil *ləkuʔ ‘bend, fold, folding part of the body; curl up on the ground, of an animal’ k-8/9ʹ (*k > Ø in Rikou; expect *k > ʔ or k) *l > r/l in Meto Motion na-le~leʔu {2} le~leʔu {3} le~leʔu-k (J:309) na-le~leʔu na-le~leʔu na-le~leku na-le~leu na-le~leʔu na-le~leʔu na-le~leʔu na-le~leʔu reuk/saen riuk/saen liuk/saen (M:404) lik/saan likuŋ {2} °liuksaŋ °liku/saen kaləku 529 *lele *lele-k Rote time time Rote *loo ‘stretch’ also shows the correspondence of Helong d = Rote l. Time lele-k (J:295) lele-ʔ lele-k lele-ʔ lele-ʔ lele-k lele-k lele-ʔ lele-ʔ dedeŋ Helong 530 *lema *ka-lema PRM sea-snake sea-snake ; eel *a > e /_# in Meto Creatures, aquatic creatures, fish lema-k (J:296) lema-ʔ lema-ʔ lema-k lema-k lema-ʔ lema-ʔ lema-ʔ k|neme k|neme ETimor 531 *lemuk CER dolphin dolphin **lemur pre-RM Ø > *k Creatures, aquatic creatures, fish lemuk ETimor, Maluku 532 *lemba PRM carry on a shoulder pole carry *lemba PCMP Motion lepa (J:305) lepa lepa lepa lempa lemba lemba lemba nepa-t (M:364) lepa lebo, leba (Mo:128) ai kaleba 533 *lena PRM sesame sesame *ləŋah (Zorc 1995:1128) *a > e /_# in wRM Plants, edible lena (J:296) lena lena lena lena lena lena lene lene nene-l °lena leŋa 534 *lendo Rote dance dance Motion leno (J:299) leno leno lendo °lendo leno lendo lendo lendo ledo, lendo Hawu-Dhao 535 *leŋɡe CER too much too much Quantity leŋe (J:298) leŋe ləŋa Hawu-Dhao 536 *leŋɡu Rote throw throw Meto has na-neku ‘lose’, na-m|neku ‘lost’ for which the sound correspondences with the Rote forms are perfect, however the semantic connection is far too dubious to establish these forms as cognate. Motion leŋu (J:299) leŋu leŋu leŋu leku leŋɡu leŋɡu leŋɡu leŋɡu ligu Hawu-Dhao 537 *leo Rote clan clan Social and political relations leo (J:301) leo leo leo leo leo leo leo leo leon leo leo (Mo:129) Helong, ETimor 538 *lesu₁ PRM neck neck *s > Ø in Meto (also Helong) vowel height harmony *u > o /e_ in Meto The main difficulty in this comparison is accounting for irregular loss of medial *s in both the Meto and Helong forms. There seem to be two possible explanations: (1) This comparison combines more than one cognate set; Rote lesu is not cognate with the Meto forms. (2) Medial *s was irregularly lost in Meto, from which the Helong form is a borrowing. Whatever the ultimate history of these forms, it is likely that the Helong and Meto forms are a result of borrowing before Meto *l > n, though the direction of borrowing cannot yet be confidently determined. Body, head lesu_haʔi-k (J:307) lesu_haʔi lesu_haʔi-k lesu_kai-ʔ lesu_ai-ʔ lesu_haʔi-k lesu_haʔi lesu_ai-k lesu_ai-ʔ lesu_ai-ʔ neo-f neo-f leo nˀeo Helong, ETimor 539 *lesu₂ Rote come out, take out come out *lesu PCMP. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) also reconstruct PWMP *ləcut ‘squeeze out, slip out’ which could be connected. Motion lesu (J:306) lesu lesu lesu lesu lesu lesu lesu lesu (On:246) losa 540 *lete₁ *ka-lete-k PRM mountain, hill mountain ; hill *letay₁ ‘above’ PCMP Physical world lete-k (J:308) lete-ʔ lete-k lete-k lete-ʔ le~lete, lete-k lete-k lete-ʔ lete-ʔ neten k|nete|ʔ (M:366) leten leten (Mo:130) lete(n) (dJ:124) lede 541 *lete₂ PRM bridge bridge *letay₂ PCMP Motion, buildings le~lete (J:307) le~lete le~lete le~lete le~lete le~lete le~lete le~lete le~lete nete-ranan (M:366) hleten kalete kla~lete (Mo:108) 542 *leu PRM inceptive, used to ask permission to begin an activity now ; already vowel height harmony *u > o /e_ in Dela Time leu leu leo neu neu 543 *lənde *lənde~lənde PnRote still standing (of water) still (water) *nd > n /ə_ in Rikou Jonker makes comparisons with forms in Seram, e.g. Kamarian marene ‘calm, quiet’ (van Ekris 1864:308) but I do not find this comparison convincing given the semantics. (Kamarian marina is given as specifically ‘still [of sea]’, thus indicating that marene probably does not also indicate ‘calm of sea’). Additionally, whether *nd would correspond regularly to n in languages of Seram is unknown. *endən Physical world, water oe=a lene~lene (J:297) lene~lene lene~lene lene~lene lene~lene lende 544 *liɓu CERM swarm, teem, abound surround ; teem ; abound *libut ‘surround, encircle, as game’ *b > *ɓ /V_V *rimbu Creatures libu (Fox 2016b:27) li~libu n-nibun n-nibun (M:368) libur (Mo:130) 545 *liɗa *liɗa-k PRM wing wing ; fin ; edge *a > e ~ a sporadically in Termanu, Ba'a and Meto (also Kemak) regular *ɗ > **l /*l_ in Meto (and Helong) *ɗilas Body, animal body lida-k, lide-k (J:310) lida-ʔ lida-k lida-ʔ lida-k, lide-k liɗa-k liɗa-ʔ liɗa-ʔ nini-n nine|ʔ, nini|ʔ nine-n, nina-n (M:370) nina-f liras (Mo:131) lila/paa-n, lile/paa, lili/paa-ŋ, lili/paa lila/faan ETimor, CTimor 546 *liɗe *liɗe-k Rote palm leaf nerve nerve of palm leaf *e > e ~ a in Ba'a Plants, tree, palm, plant parts lide-k (J:310) lide-ʔ lide-k lide-ʔ lide-ʔ lide-k, lida-k liɗe-k liɗe-ʔ liɗe-ʔ Malay 547 *lifu PRM body of still water; billabong, lake billabong ; pool ; lake **libun pre-RM Physical world, water lifu (J:311f) lifu lifu lifu lifu lifu lifu lifu lifu nifu {2} nefo nifu {2} nefo (M:368) nifu nifu lihu lihun (Mo:130) welihun (On:145) Helong, ETimor, Flores, Sumba, CTimor 548 *liha *li~liha-k Rote centipede centipede *qalu-hipan Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PCEMP *qalipan. *a > e in Tii (sporadic assimilation) Creatures, bugs, creature taxon li~liʔa-k (J:310) li~liʔa-ʔ li~liʔa-k li~lia-ʔ li~lias li~lia-ʔ li~liʔa-k li~liʔe-k li~lia-ʔ li~lia-ʔ la~liʔan¯tali 549 *lii₁ *na-lii, *lii-k Rote sound sound *liŋ ‘sound of ringing; word, speech’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) include Termanu lii-k ‘sound’ as evidence for three separate reconstructions: PCMP liRi ‘sound, voice’, PCEMP liqə ‘voice’, and PMP *liŋ. Of these, PCMP liRi is only otherwise supported by Yamdena liri-n ‘voice; language’ and ŋé-liri ‘uproar, clamour’. Unless more cognates are forthcoming, PCMP *liRi is probably spurious. Speech and language na-lii {2} lii-k (J:309) na-lii na-lii na-lii na-lii na-lii na-lii na-lii na-lii liin lii 550 *lii₂ *boto_lii-k Rote neck neck *liqəR *ə > *i (assimilation to previous *i) Body, head boto_lii-k (J:59) boto_lii-ʔ boto_lii-k boto_lii-ʔ bo/lii-ʔ bo/lii-ʔ bo/lii-ʔ boto_lii-k ɓoto_lii-k ɓoto_lii-ʔ 551 *lii₃ *ka-lii PnRote shy, wild shy ; wild *liaR (Dempwolff 1938:96) *a > i Blust and Trussel (ongoing) identify several putative cognates as ‘Probably a Malay loan distribution.’ and this is indeed possible. However, in the case of the Rote forms, borrowing from Malay does not seem likely due to the final vowel assimilation and diphthongisation of the initial prefix. While neither process is regular in the Rote languages, they would be even more unexpected if these terms were (recently) borrowed from Malay. Social and political relations kai|lii, ka-lii {2} kai|liis {3} kai|li~lii (J:216,310) ka-lii {2} kai|lii-ʔ ka-lii {2} kai|lii-k ka-lii {2} ka-lii-ʔ ai|lii {2} ai|liis kai|lii {2} kai|liis {2} kaliis melei 552 *liku₁ Rote strike, knock strike ; knock ; hit k-8/9 Actions liʔu (J:316) liʔu liʔu liku liʔu liʔu liʔu liʔu liku Hawu-Dhao 553 *liku₂ PRM back of an object back *likud ‘back’ k-9 Body, torso liʔu_dea (J:317) liʔu_dea liʔu_dea liku_dea liʔu_deas liʔu_dea liʔu_ɗea liʔu_ɗeat niʔu-n niʔu-n {2} an-niʔu {3} am-koti-f =kau, am-niʔu-f =kau (M:374) likun liku (Mo:131) 554 *lili *lili-k PRM wax wax *lilin ‘beeswax’ Creatures lili-k (J:313) lili-ʔ lili-k lili-ʔ lili-ʔ lili-k lili-k lili-ʔ lili-ʔ niin|k nini|k nini|k (M:371) nini|k lilin (Mo:131) 555 *lilis nRM kind of tree Calophyllum teysmannii |ui{Calophyllum teysmannii} vague Rote semantics Plants, tree, plant taxon kai/lili-k (J:216) kai/lili-ʔ kai/lili-k kai-lili-ʔ ai_lili-ʔ ai/lili-k (kai/lili-k ?) 556 *lilo PRM gold, silver gold ; silver vowel metathesis in Meto *iCo > oCi Tools lilo (J:313) lilo lilo lilo lilo lilo lilo lilo lilo noni noni (M:382) lila {2} lil mutiʔ {2} lil mea Helong 557 *lima₁ PRM five five *lima Quantity lima (J:313f) lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima nima nima nima (M:370) niam lima lima (Mo:131) wolima lima ləmi 558 *lima₂ *ka-lima-k PRM hand/arm hand ; arm *qa-lima Body, limbs, arms lima-k (J:314) lima-ʔ lima-k lima-ʔ lima-ʔ lima-ʔ lima-k lima-k lima-ʔ lima-ʔ nimi-f ʔ|nima-f (M:370) nima-f ʔ|nima-f ima lima-(n) (Mo:131) lima limar 559 *lino PRM tree Grewia salutaris |ui{Grewia slutaris} *qanilaw ‘tree Grewia species’ consonant metathesis *nVl > *lVn Plants, tree, plant taxon lino (J:314, Heyne 1950:1060,cxlviii) lino lino lino lino lino lino lino lino 560 *lise nRM shore tree with edible nuts Terminalia catappa |ui{Terminalia catappa} *talisay *e > a in Termanu, Korbafo and Ba'a Plants, tree, plant taxon lisa, lise (J:315) lisa, lise lise lise lise lisa lise nisa|ʔ {2} ʔ|nisa|ʔ =ma ʔfenu (M:372) 561 *lisum PRM kind of plant with fruit plant, kind vague semantics Plants, tree, plant taxon li~lisu-k (J:315) li~lisu-ʔ li~lisu-k li~lisu-ʔ li~lisu-ʔ li~lisu-k li~lisu-ʔ li~lisu-ʔ {2} (M:373) 562 *loɓa PRM kind of bark used to make clothing bark (n.), kind Clothing and grooming loba (J:318) loba loba loba loba loba loɓa loba loɓa (M:376) luɓa (On:243) Hawu-Dhao, Sumba 563 *loɓo Rote tire out, hurt tire out ; hurt Body, sickness na-lobo {2} lobo (J:319) na-lobo na-lobo na-lobo na-lobo na-loɓo loɓo Hawu-Dhao 564 *loɗe PRM stick out stick out *e > o in Meto; *l = l in Meto (expect n) regular *ɗ > **l /*l_ in Meto Body maa=na lode~lode {2} lode-k maa~maa (J:319) lode~lode lode~lode lole~lole role~role lode~lode loɗe~loɗe loɗe~loɗe, lo~loɗe loɗe~loɗe n-lolok maa-f {2} mata-n na-tlolo {3} lolo-n {4} poʔa-n lolo-n (M:284) 565 *loɗo *loɗo-k PRM straight, right straight regular *ɗ > **l /*l_ in Meto (and Helong) Spatial relations lo~lodo-k (J:320) lo~lodo-ʔ lo~lodo-k lo~lodo-ʔ lo~lodo-k lo~loɗo-k lo~loɗo-ʔ na-m|nono, na-nono {2} m|nono|ʔ m|nono|ʔ (M:327) m|nono|ʔ lolo mololo kelolo, lolo Helong, SW Maluku, Flores, Hawu-Dhao 566 *loe₁ Rote go down go down Motion loe (J:320) loe loe loe loe loe loe loe loe Hawu-Dhao 567 *loe₂ PRM listless, weak listless ; weak Body, sickness ao=na ma-sa-loe ao=na ma-sa-loe ao=na ma-sa-loe masaloe na-noe-b-aʔ °noe~noe 568 *lohas CERM equipment, outfit, clothes equipment ; clothes Clothing and grooming loʔas (J:318) loa-ʔ pake_nohas na-nohas (M:378) lohas Helong 569 *loke PRM hang hang k-8ʹ (*k = k in Dengka; expect ʔ or Ø) Actions lo~loʔe {2} loʔe~loʔe {3} beloʔe (J:321) lo~loʔe lo~loʔe lo~loke lo~loʔe lo~loʔe lo~loʔe lo~loke-ʔ na-k|noe loen Helong 570 *lole₁ PRM kind of tuber tuber ; sweet potato ; taro *l > r/l in Meto (expect n); *e > i in most Meto Plants, edible plants, tuber lole (J:323) lole lole lole lole lole lole lole rauk rori rauk rori loli (M:284) lole lole Helong 571 *lole₂ PRM spool spool Clothing and grooming lole (J:323) lole lole lole lole lole lole ʔ|none|ʔ {2} na-ʔ|none|ʔ {2} ʔ|none|ʔ (M:381) slale Helong 572 *lolir Rote roll, roll around, wallow roll ; wallow Jonker (1908:324) gives potential cognates in languages of South Sulawesi: Makassar doliʔ ‘wallow’, loliʔ ‘roll (n.)’, Bentong lulir ‘roll’, and Bugis lole ‘roll up’. Motion loli (J:324) loli loli loli loli loli loli loli {2} lolil loli {2} lolir lolit {2} klolit (Mo:132) ETimor, Sulawesi 573 *lolo₁ PRM liana, vine liana Plants, useful plants lolo_kode-k (J:326) lolo lolo_neʔet nono {2} {3} (M:384) lolo Helong 574 *lolo₂ PRM stretch out stretch ; thread Clothing and grooming lolo (J:325) lolo lolo lolo lolo lolo lolo lolo lolo n-nono n-nono (M:384) lolo lolo Helong, Hawu-Dhao 575 *lolo₃ PRM beam, stick beam ; stick House lolo (J:326) lolo lolo lolo lolo lolo lolo lolo nono|ʔ lolo lollo Helong, SW Maluku, Flores 576 *lolo₄ *lolo-k PRM long impression in the ground; watercourse, valley valley ; strait ; watercourse Physical world oe_lolo-k {2} lolo-k (J:326) oe_lolo-ʔ oe_lolo-k oe_lolo-ʔ oe_lolo-ʔ oe_lolo-k oe_lolo-k oe_lolo-ʔ oe_lolo-ʔ nono-n {2} ʔ|nono|f {2} (M:384) °oelolo, °oenonon {2} °hnono Helong 577 *lombu Rote moss, algae, duckweed moss ; algae ; duckweed *lumbu ‘plant species’ Only supported by four putative reflexes in Blust and Trussel (ongoing). *u > *o Plants lopu {2} lopu lee {3} lopu tasi (J:328) lopu lopu lopu lopu lompu lombu lombu lombu 578 *loo₁ Rote stretch stretch Rote *lele ‘time’ also shows the correspondence of Helong d = Rote l. Actions loo (J:317) loo loo loo loo loo loo loo loo dooŋ lolo, kelolo Helong, Hawu-Dhao 579 *loo₂ Rote household household House uma_loo {2} na-uma_na-loo (J:667) ume_loo °looʔ loʔo {2} tuur loʔo loʔon, loʔo (Mo:133) ETimor 580 *lopo CERM shelter, hut shelter ; hut *ləpaw *ə > *o *p = *p *l > Meto r/l The irregularities at every level indicate that this term probably spread by borrowing. House lopo (J:327) lopo ropo lopo (M:286) klobor, klobar (Mo:110) ETimor, Flores 581 *losa Rote arrive, reach, until, up to arrive ; reach ; until ; up to Motion losa (J:328) losa losa losa losa losa losa losa losa lisu loha, lohe Helong, Hawu-Dhao 582 *lua|t PRM cave, cavern cave *luaŋ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) also reconstruct formally similar PWMP *Ruqaŋ ‘hole, pit’ and PMP *lubaŋ ‘hole, pit’. Final *t in wRM could be from the nominalising suffix t, though why this should be attached to this form is inexplicable. *lea Physical world lua-k luat luat nuat nuat nuat (M:389) uee luʔa (Mo:134) 583 *lua₁ PRM boiling water, boil over boil ; seethe *luab ‘swell up, as boiling rice; boil over’ Food and drink lua (J:331) lua lua lua lua lua lua lua lua na-ʔnua (M:388) lua 584 *lua₂ *lua-k PRM wide, open, openness outside ; open (adj.) ; wide *luqaR ‘outside, wide open spaces; loose’ *u > o in Rote Spatial relations loa-k (J:318) loa-ʔ loa-k loa-ʔ loa-ʔ loa-k loa-k loa-ʔ loa-ʔ mai/nua|n mai/nua|n mai/nua|n (M:299) ma|nuʔa-k bluaŋ luan (Mo:134) 585 *lui PRM pull off, remove pull off ; remove Actions lui (J:332) lui lui lui lui lui lui lui lui n-nui n-nui (M:389) luit (Mo:134) ETimor 586 *luku₁ PRM watch silently, brood watch ; brood ; spy k-9 Sense perception luʔu (J:336) luʔu luʔu luku luʔu luʔu luʔu luʔu luʔu n-nuʔu n-nuʔu (M:388) ruku Hawu-Dhao 587 *luku₂ Rote bent and strengthless limb, paralysed bent ; paralysed *lukut ‘roll or crumple up’ k-7/8ʹ (Dengka k Oenale ʔ correspondence, expect either k in both for pattern 7, or ʔ in both for pattern 8) Blust and Trussel (ongoing) also reconstruct PWMP *lu(ŋ)kuq ‘bend, curve’ (supported by two reflexes), and POc *lukun ‘bend, as an arm or leg’. Jonker relates the first part of Termanu luʔu_laʔa-k with luʔu ‘brood’ (*luku), luʔu ‘lie down (said of animals)’, and luʔu ‘kneel down’. Of these, the semantic connection between the last form and ‘bent’ is particularly plausible. Body luʔu-k, luʔu ei-k {2} luʔu_laʔa-k {3} na-ma-luʔu (J:337) luʔu-ʔ {2} luʔu_laʔa luʔu-k {2} luku_laka-ʔ {2} luku_laka-ʔ luʔu-k {2} luʔu_laʔa-k luʔu-k {2} luʔu_laʔa-k {2} luka_laka-ʔ ? mamaluʔu 588 *luli PRM taboo taboo Social and political relations, religion and belief luli-k (J:323) luli-ʔ luli-k luli-ʔ luli-ʔ luli-k luli-k luli-ʔ luli-ʔ nuni nuni {2} na-nuni (M:167) luli luli, lulik (Mo:135) luli Helong, ETimor, SW Maluku, CTimor 589 *lulun PRM roll up, as a mat roll up *lulun Blust and Trussel (ongoing) also reconstruct PCMP *lunu ‘roll up’ on the basis of the Termanu form and a Kei cognate. This reconstruction is unconvincing given that most varieties of Rote have lulu. consonant metathesis *lVn > *nVl in Termanu, Bokai, and Ba'a with subsequent loss of final consonant The hypothesis of consonant metathesis to explain the otherwise irregular medial n in these languages provides language internal evidence that the PRM form had a final *n. Motion lunu (J:334) lulu lunu lulu lulu lunu lulu lulu lulu n-nunu (M:393) lulu lulun (Mo:135) 590 *lunu *ka-lunu PRM wooden headrest, pillow cushion ; pillow *qalunan *a > *u (sporadic assimilation) consonant metathesis *lVn > nVl in Bilbaa, Rikou, and wRote The initial element has apparently been reanalysed in Rote as connected with reflexes of *kaiu ‘wood’. The out-comparisons point to pre-RM **ka(r)lun[u/i]. House kai/lunu (J:216) kai/lunu kai/lunu kai/nulu (ʔ)ai/nulu-ʔ kai/lunu kai/lunu (ʔ)ai/nulu-ʔ ʔai/nulu-ʔ ʔai/nulu aka/ʔnunuʔ , (M:13) kluni {2} hluni kluni, karluni (Mo:102, 111) kaluni, kluni (dJ:120) luni 591 *lusə PRM wrap wrap *s > ʔ in Termanu, Korbafo, and Ba'a Motion na-luʔe (J:332) na-luʔe na-luse na-luse na-luse na-luʔe na-luse na-lusa na-lusa n-tai_nusa lose Helong 592 *lutə *lutə-k CERM firebrand, burning piece of wood firebrand *alutən Physical world, fire haʔi_lute-k (J:335) haʔi_lute-ʔ ai nuta|ʔ nuta|ʔ (M:395) 593 *lutu₁ *ma-lutu-k, *na-lutu PRM fine, delicate, tiny fine ; tiny ; small Spatial relations lutu-k {2} na-lutu (J:335f) lutu-ʔ {2} na-lutu lutu-k {2} na-lutu lutu-ʔ {2} na-lutu lutu-ʔ {2} na-lutu lutu-k {2} na-lutu lutu-k {2} na-lutu lutu-ʔ {2} na-lutu, na-mba-lutu-ʔ lutu-ʔ {2} na-lutu m|nutu|ʔ {2} na-nutu na-nutu (M:395) blutuʔ {3} tai lutu-n lotu(k) (Mo:134) Helong, ETimor, Flores 594 *lutu₂ Rote pile up pile up **lutuR pre-RM Schapper (2020) discusses the distribution and semantics of this cognate set throughout Linguistic Wallacea in some detail. Spatial relations lutu_batu (J:335) lutu_batu lutu_batu lutu_batu lutu_mpatu lutu_mbatu lutu_mbatu lutaŋ lutu (Mo:135) lutu(r) (dJ:125) lukur Helong, ETimor, Wetar, SW Maluku, Flores 595 *luu₁ *lu~luu Rote castor-oil plant |ui{Ricinus communis} Whether the semantic connection between ‘casuarina tree’ and ‘castor-oil-plant’ is likely or not is unclear to me as a non-botanist, but the two trees do appear to have similar seed pods. Given the existence of *kaiou being retained in Rote with the meaning ‘casuarina tree’, as well as geographically distant Helong and Dadu'a having this meaning, it seems most likely that the pre-Rote referent was casuarina tree with semantic shift in Rote. Plants, tree, plant taxon lu~luu(-k) (J:330) lu~luu lu~luu lu~luu lu~luu lu~luu-k lu~luu lu~luu lu~luu luu Helong, ETimor, Hawu-Dhao 596 *luu₂ PRM tears (crying) tears (crying) *luhəq *ə > *u (sporadic assimilation) Body, emission luu (J:330) luu luu luu luu luu luu, luul luu nuu maat nuu (M:387) luun (Mo:135) 597 *ma PRM and and *mah Cognition ma (J:338) ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ═ma ═ma ma (M:295) 598 *maa *maa-k PRM tongue tongue *maya PCEMP Body, head, mouth maa-k (J:338) maa-ʔ maa-k maa-ʔ maa-ʔ maa-ʔ maa-k maa-k maa-ʔ maa-ʔ maa-f maa-f maa-f (M:373) ma~maa-f mee 599 *maɗa Rote dry up, evaporate dry up ; evaporate *maja Sense perception mada (J:339) mada mada mada mada mada maɗa maɗa maɗa maɗa-ʔ mara(n) (Mo:139) 600 *maɗo PRM medicinal plant medicine ; tobacco *a > o in Rote (probably influence from *moɗo) The evidence from Tetun favours reconstructing penultimate *o with an irregular sound change in Meto rather than reconstructing *a with an irregular sound change in Rote. *moɗe Plants, edible modo (J:359) modo modo modo modo modo moɗo moɗo moɗo maro malo (M:302) modo (Mo:142) ETimor 601 *mae₁ PRM itchy tuber Amorphophallus species tuber, itchy **maya pre-RM ‘A few species [of Amorphophallus] are edible as ‘famine foods’ after careful preparation to remove irritating chemicals. […] These small to massive plants grow from a subterranean tuber.’ (‘Amorphophallus’ 2020 Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphophallus. Accessed 17/09/2020) Plants, edible plants, tuber mae (J:340) mae mae mae mae mae mae mae mae mae lauk mae(-l) {2} ʔlali mae (M:296) maek maek (Mo:136) maʤa ETimor, Bima, CTimor 602 *mae₂ PRM shy, ashamed, embarrassed shy ; embarrassed ; ashamed *ma-həyaq PCEMP *mayaq Emotions and values mae (J:340) mae mae mae mae mae mae mae mae n-mae mae (M:295) mae moe (Mo:142) 603 *mafo PRM cool, shadow cool ; shadow Meto hafoʔ ‘shadow’ and Bima hawo ‘shadow’ point to earlier **kabo. The forms with initial m could be reflexes of **ma-kabo. Sense perception ma~mafo (J:341) ma~mafo ma~mafo ma~mafo ma~mafo mafo~mafo {2} mafo-ʔ mafo {2} mafo-ʔ na-mafo mafo|ʔ, hafo|ʔ mafo|ʔ (M:297) mahan, mahon (Mo:136) mavo {2} rai-mavo ma~maho (On:283) mawo {2} hawo ETimor, Flores, Bima, Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 604 *mafu PRM drunk drunk *ma-buhək Food and drink mafu-k (J:341) mafu-ʔ mafu-k mafu-ʔ mafu-ʔ mafu-k mafu-k mafu-ʔ mafu n-mafu n-mafu n-mafu (M:297) mahu 605 *mai nRM come come *ma(R)i Motion mai (J:341) mai mai mai mai mai mai mai maa mai (Mo:136) mai 606 *mali *mali-k nRM bitter bitter ; brackish *i > e in Meto Sense perception mali-ʔ mali-ʔ mali-k (M:305) maliʔ, madiʔ maliʔ Helong 607 *malis PwRM laugh, smile laugh *malip PCEMP expected *p > s /_# (§3.5.1.3) Emotions and values mali mali n-mani {2} n-ma͡inis n-mani {2} n-manis ma~main {2} ma~mains=aa n-mani {2} n-manis mali mari {2} mare mari 608 *malus PRM betel-pepper betel-pepper The non-AN Timor languages have cognates of this form. Heston (2017:82) lists: Makasae malu, Makalero malu, Fataluku maluh, and Oirata malu. Plants, edible malu (Fox 2016b:31) ma͡unus manus manus (M:308) manus malus (Mo:138) malu (dJ:126) maluh, malhu malus ETimor, Wetar, SW Maluku, Flores, CTimor 609 *mama PRM chew betel nut chew *mamaq ‘chew without intending to swallow, as betel nut; premasticated food to give to an infant; premasticated food’ Food and drink mama (J:344) mama mama mama mama mama mamah mama mama mama mama-t n-mama mama (M:303) mama (Mo:138) mama 610 *mamər PRM garden, orchard garden ; orchard *ə > e /σ_# in wRote (perhaps *ə > *a > e /_#) Final *r (rather than *n) reconstructed on the basis of Kupang Malay mamar. Plants, edible plants, crops mame-k (J:344) mame-ʔ mame-k mame-ʔ mame-ʔ mame-k mame-k mame-ʔ mame-ʔ maman maman Helong 611 *mamis Rote sweet sweet ; insipid *ma-həmis Sense perception mamis {2} mami (J:344) mami-ʔ mamiʔ mami-ʔ mamis mamis mamis mamis mamis 612 *mana₁ PRM relativiser relativiser Possibly connected with PMP *maRuqanay (PRM *mane, and *mone). Particularly as reflexes of *maRuqanay have the form *mana (as a result of antepenultimate vowel reduction) in some phrases in Rote languages (see *mane). In the Rote languages mana appears to introduce relative clauses with a verb, while foo is used for other relative clauses. People, pronouns mana (Jonker 1915:106) mana mana mana mana manaʔ manaʔ manaʔ (M:304) 613 *mana₂ *mana-k Rote place place (n.) Physical world ma~mana-k {2} mana-k (J:345) ma~mana-ʔ ma~mana-k ma~mana-ʔ ma~mana-ʔ ma~mana-k ma~mana-k ma~mana-ʔ ma~mana-ʔ mana Helong, Alor 614 *ma(n)at PRM orphan orphan ; tame People, kin ana_maa-k (J:339) ana_maa-ʔ ana_maa-k ana_maa-ʔ ana_maa-ʔ ana_maa-k ana_maa-k ana_maa-ʔ ana_maat ana maat komeʔ_manat manat {2} (M:305) 615 *mane Rote male, man male ; king ; prince *maRuqanay PRM had two reflexes of *maRuqanay: *mane and *mone, both of which are attested in wRote, Ba'a, and Tii. The meaning of both forms was probably ‘male, man’ in PRM. Most of Rote lost *mone, Meto lost *mane, while wRote, Ba'a and Tii differentiated the semantics of the two terms. That semantic expansion to include ‘king’ had not occurred at the level of PRM is indicated by Meto in which mone has no hint of this meaning. Instead, PRM *laʔi > naʔi-f has undergone a similar, though non-identical, semantic expansion. However, the wRote forms in which reflexes of *maRuqanay are combined with apparent reflexes of *Raya (that is, manae-ʔ/monae-ʔ etc.) which have the meaning ‘big, great’ indicate that expansion to ‘big, great’ may have occurred, from which ‘king’ would be easily derived. *mone People mane-k {2} mane {3} mane feu-k (J:345, 134) mane-ʔ {2} mane(-ʔ) {3} mana_feu-ʔ mane-k {2} mane {3} mana_feu-k mane-ʔ {2} mane {3} mana_feu-ʔ mane mane-ʔ {2} mane {3} mana_feu-ʔ mane-k {2} mane mane-k {2} mane mane-ʔ {4} manae-ʔ {5} na-manae mane-ʔ mane-ʔ {4} manae-ʔ blane {2} blanen mane (Mo:139) 616 *maneu *maneu-k, *na-maneu PRM bright, light bright consonant metathesis *mVn > *nVm in PwRM PwRM *nameu Sense perception neu-k {2} na-neu (J:394) neu-ʔ neu-k neu-ʔ neu-ʔ neu-k neu-k meu-ʔ meu-ʔ meu-ʔ nmeu {2} meuʔ_sineʔ nmeu (M:322) mniuʔ niuʔ Helong 617 *manu PRM chicken chicken *manuk Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon manu (J:346) manu manu manu manu manu manu manu manu manu manu manu (M:307) manu manu manu (Mo:139) 618 *maŋɡu₁ Rote tired tired Body, sickness maŋu {2} sota_maŋu-k (Jonker 1915:53, J:730) maŋɡu maŋɡu maŋɡu maŋɡu (On:272) Sumba 619 *maŋɡu₂ Rote dry fruit skin dry *ma-Raŋu ‘dry’ *ma-Raŋu only reconstructed for PCEMP. *Raŋu reconstructed for PMP *ŋ > *ŋɡ *m > b in all Rote except Korbafo, Bokai, and Bilbaa; *ŋɡ > nd in wRote and Tii antepenultimate vowel reduction in Termanu, Bokai, Bilbaa, Rikou, and Dengka Ross (2003:227) reconstructs POc *maRaŋo/*Raŋo with the meaning ‘become withered (of vegetation)’. Plants, plant parts baŋa_lou-k (J:29) maŋo_lou-ʔ maŋa_lou-k maŋa_lou-ʔ baka_rou-ʔ baŋɡu_lou-k ɓandu_rou-k banda_lou-ʔ ɓandu_rou-ʔ maŋu maŋo 620 *masi PRM salty, salt salty *ma-qasin Sense perception masi {2} masi-k (J:347f) masi masi masi masi masi masi masi masi ma͡isi|k masi|k masi|ʔ (M:310) masin masin (Mo:139) 621 *masu *masu-k PRM smoke smoke ; steam ; vapour *ma-qasu PCMP Physical world, fire masu-k (J:348) masu-ʔ masu-k masu-ʔ masu-ʔ masu-k masu-k masu-ʔ masu-ʔ masu|ʔ masu|ʔ masu|ʔ (M:389) ai mahun (dJ:111) ai mahu 622 *mata₁ *mata-k PRM eye, face eye *mata Body, head mata-k (J:348f) mata-ʔ mata-k mata-ʔ mata-ʔ mata-ʔ mata-k mata-k mata-ʔ mata-ʔ mata-f mata-f {2} et mata-n mata-f (M:312) mata-f mata mata-n (Mo:140) mata mada 623 *mata₂ *mata-k PRM raw, uncooked raw ; green ; unripe *ma-hataq Blust and Trussel (ongoing) make several reconstructions with similar forms and semantics. *a > e /_# in wRM Food and drink mata-k (J:350) mata-ʔ mata-k mata-ʔ ma~mata-ʔ mata-k mata-k mate-ʔ mate-ʔ nau|maet n-mate {2} ma|mateʔ (M:313) mate-l taa matak (Mo:140) 624 *mate PRM die, dead; thoroughly, extremely die ; thoroughly *matay ‘die; dead’ Body mate {2} mate~mate (J:351) mate mate mate mate mate mate mate mate n-mate n-mate n-mate (M:313) maet mate mate (Mo:140) made 625 *mau CERM kind of plant plant, kind ; grass glottal stop insertion in Meto vague Rote semantics weakens reconstruction Plants mau (Fox 2016b:33) maʔu (M:314) maʔu 626 *maus PRM tame, docile, domesticated tame ; docile ; domesticated *maRus PCEMP (own reconstruction) Creatures, domesticated animals ka-maus {2} ka-mau {4} mata=n mau~mau (J:352) ka-mau-ʔ ka-mau-k ka-mau-ʔ ma~maus ka-maus ka-mau-k ma~maus ma~maus na-mausa-b {2} n-mau maus (M:10) hmoa maus maus (Mo:140) mhau maru (dJ:127) maru mau 627 *mea PRM red red *ma-iRaq *a > e /_# in wRM; *VVʔ > VʔV in Amarasi (perceptual metathesis) Sense perception mea (J:353) mea mea mea mea mea mea mee mee meʔe meʔe meeʔ meeʔ mea mean (Mo:140) mea 628 *meɗa *na-meɗa-k Rote wake up wake up Body na-meda-k (J:353) na-meda-ʔ na-meda-k na-meda-ʔ na-meda-ʔ na-meda-k na-meɗa-k na-meda-ʔ melaŋ Helong 629 *mee *na-ka-mee PRM bleat bleat onomatopoeia Creatures na-ka-mee (J:352) na-ka-mee na-ka-mee na-ka-mee na-mee na-ka-mee na-ka-mee na-ʔa-mee na-ʔa-mee na-ʔ|mee na-ʔ|meʔe mee Helong 630 *mehi *na-la-mehi PRM dream dream *ma-hipi Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct an alternate PCEMP form *mipi, presumably from *ma-hipi with deletion of the antepenultimate vowel. The reflexes in Timor attest earlier **mepi with *ahi > *ai > *e, thus *ma-hipi > **maipi > **mepi. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) also reconstruct PAN *Səpi, with the PMP reflex *həpi. The only MP form given supporting PMP *həpi is Tetun mehi. However, PMP *ə > o is regular in Tetun, thus showing that Tetun mehi is from earlier **mepi < PMP *ma-hipi. Whatever the validity of PAN *Səpi, putative PMP *həpi is probably spurious. consonant metathesis *lm > *ml > mn in most Meto The source of the initial *la in the verbal forms is currently unknown. Jonker (1915:136f) gives a number of other forms with a fossilised la- prefix. Body na-la-meʔi {2} meʔi-s (J:354) na-la-meʔi na-la-meʔi na-la-mei na-la-mei na-la-mei na-la-meʔi na-la-meʔi na-la-meni, na-la-mein na-la-mein na-la-mei-n {2} mei-t na-mnei na-mnei {2} mnei-t u-nmaiʔ (M:347) na-mnei na-mnai, na-mnae meʔi mehi (Mo:141) 631 *mela *mela-k Rote flea flea *qatiməla *a > e /_# in wRote compounded with teke in nRote Creatures, bugs, insects, louse, creature taxon teke/mela-k (J:614) teke/mela-ʔ teke/mela-k teke/mela-ʔ teke/mela-ʔ teke/mela-k mele-ʔ mele-ʔ kmelaʔ hmela (k)mela (Mo:112, 141) taməla 632 *meni₁ PRM fragrant, aromatic fragrant ; aromatic **məŋi(R) pre-RM Final pre-RM **R is attested by Dadu'a and Ende. Ende, as a member of Central Flores, has sporadic lowering of high vowels to mid before *R (Elias 2018:98f). On the other hand, Rote-Meto also should undergo *i > e /_*R, thus providing evidence against final pre-RM **R. Possibly connected with PMP *baŋəhih ‘fragrant’ with irr. *b > **m and sporadic antepenultimate *a > **ə. (This sporadic change is also attested in *panahik > *hene ‘climb’ and *saŋəlaR > *seŋa ‘fry’.) If the evidence for final **R in **məŋi(R) were strengthened, then the connection with PMP *baŋəhih would become even more tenuous. Sense perception meni (J:355f) meni meni meni meni meni meni meni ma-ʔa-meni-ʔ foo meni foo meni (M:318) fu/miin miŋis kai-kmeni vuməŋi Helong, ETimor, Flores, Hawu-Dhao, CTimor 633 *meni₂ PnMeto sandalwood Sandalum album sandalwood ; sandalwood Given the importance of sandalwood as an early item of trade, this could be an early loan between Meto and Tetun before Meto *l > n. Plants, tree, plant taxon meni hau meni (M:318) kameli(n) (Mo:100) ETimor 634 *mendu PRM crush, grind crush ; grind *nd > ŋɡ in Oenale An alternate solution would be to reconstruct *meŋɡu and posit irr. *ŋɡ > nd in Rikou and Dengka. Occam’s razor currently favours *mendu with only one irregular sound change. The Kotos Amarasi form would be regular from both *mendu or *meŋɡu. A Ro'is Amarasi reflex could decide between the two alternate reconstructions as it has *nd > r but *ŋɡ > k. Food and drink me~mendu na-la-me~mendu me~meŋɡu n-meku 635 *meŋɡe PRM kind of red snake snake, red Jonker (1908) connects the initial me with *mea ‘red’. Creatures, bugs, creature taxon meŋe (J:355) meŋe meŋe meke meke meŋɡe meŋɡe meŋɡe meŋɡe uu/meke u/meke u/meke (M:587) u/meek °mege 636 *meo₁ PRM cat cat **meoŋ pre-RM onomatopoeia Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon meo (J:356) meo meo meo meo meo meo meo meo meo meo meo (M:319) meo meo Flores, Hawu-Dhao, Sulawesi 637 *meo₂ PnMeto warrior warrior This term was probably spread by contact due to the cultural meaning, but the exact direction of spread cannot be confidently identified. Warfare and hunting meo meo (M:318) meo meo (Mo:141) Helong, ETimor 638 *meras PRM sick sick ; pain *hapəjəs *ə > *a *j > *r (expect *ɗ) Medial *j and final *ə cannot regularly account for the Keka or Helong reflexes thus indicating irregular **ma-pəjəs > pre-RM **ma-hədas. *heɗis Body, sickness mela_dai-k mela mera meens menas {2} na-mena menas {2} na-mena (M:318) heda moras (Mo:143) pəɗa pa~pəda, papəɖa 639 *mesa PRM alone alone *ma-əsa *a > e /_# in Meto Quantity mesa (J:356) mesa mesa mesa mesa mesa mesa mesa mesa meseʔ meseʔ {2} n-mese meseʔ (M:319) meseʔ mesa mesa(k) (Mo:141) 640 *metam PMeto black; civet black ; civet *ma-qitəm ‘black, deep blue’ Balle and Cameron (2014) ascribe the etymology of Helong maat mitaŋ ‘civet’ (lit. ‘black eye’) to the dark fur around the eyes, its nocturnal behaviour, and ability to see at night. A similar explanation for the polysemy of Meto *metam is likely. Sense perception meten metan metan (M:321) metom mitaŋ mitaŋ metan (Mo:141) 641 *meti PRM low, of the tide low tide ; dried up *ma-qəti Physical world, sea meti (J:357) meti meti meti meti meti meti meti meti n-meiti n-meti (M:322) miti moti (Mo:143) meki 642 *meto PwRM dry dry Sense perception meto-ʔ meto-ʔ meto meto|ʔ meto|ʔ {2} n-meto meto|ʔ (M:322) ma~meto|ʔ 643 *midu Rote saliva, spit out saliva ; spit out *qizuR ‘saliva, spittle’ PWMP *z > *d (expect *ɗ) vowel metathesis in nRote *iCu > uCi The source of initial *m in *midu is not clear. It may be from the prefix *ma- though initial *ma-qi would regularly yield me. Kedang has iyuʔ ~ miyuʔ attesting an optional initial *m (Samely 1991:221), and some varieties of Lamaholot have a form attesting earlier *təmidu: e.g. Lamalera təmiro, Lewokukun təmiʤu (Keraf 1978). Rote *midu is cognate with PMeto *paŋinu and both are ultimately probably connected with *qizuR, but it is not possible to reconcile the initial *m = *paŋ correspondence and combine them into one set attesting a single PRM reconstruction. *ŋinu spit Body, emission mudi (J:364) mudi mudi mudi mudi mudi muɗi milu miru ilu 644 *mii *ka-mii PRM urine urine *kəmiq *ii > oe in nRote (probably influence from oe ‘water’) Body, emission moe (J:360) moe moe moe moe moe moe mii mii mii {2} miis k|mii k|mii {2} na-k|miʔi (M:323) mii {2} ma~mii-f mii mii k|mii-r mii-ʤ mii-ʤ mii mii {2} mii-n (Mo:142) n-omi 645 *mina PRM delicious, comfortable, nice; fat, grease, oil delicious ; comfortable ; nice ; oil ; fat *miñak ‘fat, grease; ointment’ Sense perception mina {2} ma-mina {3} balamina (J:357f) mina mina mina mina mina mina mina mina minaʔ {2} na-mina minaʔ {2} na-miin (M:323) {2} na-mian mina mina (Mo:142) namina Helong, ETimor, SW Maluku 646 *miu *na-ka-miu PRM whistle (through the air) whistle Motion na-ka-miu (J:358) na-ka-miu na-ka-miu na-ka-miu na-miu na-ka-muu na-ʔa-muu na-ʔa-muu na-k|miu {2} (On:291, 155) Sumba 647 *m|kaka PnMeto open-mouthed, agape open the mouth ; agape *ŋaŋa *ŋ (> *ŋ) > *k; *ŋ (> *ŋ) > *k (expect *n) Emotions and values na-m|kaka na-m|kaka (M:324) 648 *mneas PMeto husked rice rice, husked *bəRas ‘rice between harvesting and cooking; husked rice’ *R (> *r) *n consonant metathesis *əR > *ne The Meto and Kemak forms both have irregular initial *b > m and are probably borrowed before Meto underwent *r > *l > n. The direction of borrowing is unclear. Various irregularities in nearly all languages indicate that reflexes of *bəRas have spread by contact. Plants, edible plants, crops mneas mneas, mnees mnees ael beas foos (Mo:36) mreas, meras 649 *moɗe Rote tobacco tobacco *maɗo Plants, edible mode (J:359) mode mode mode mode mode moɗe moɗe moɗe 650 *moɗo *moɗo-k PRM yellow, green yellow ; green **mozo pre-RM possibly connected with PMP *muda ‘young (of fruits); immature; light (of colours)’ Sense perception mo~modo-k (J:360) mo~modo-ʔ mo~modo-k mo~modo-ʔ mo~modo-ʔ mo~modo-k mo~moɗo-k mo~moɗo-ʔ mo~moɗo-ʔ moɗo-ʔ moro|ʔ moro|ʔ {2} k|moro-f molo|ʔ {2} k|molo|ʔ (M:329) moroʔ hmolo modok {2} samodo (Mo:142;166) mosoŋ (dJ:128) (On:295) moro Helong, ETimor, Wetar, SW Maluku, Bima, Sumba 651 *mofa PRM have grey hair grey hair *ma-quban Body mofa (J:360) mofa mofa mofa mofa mofa mofa mofa mofa mofaʔ {2} <ʔnaak mofa> {3} (M:327) 652 *mofu PRM fall fall *f > (?*h) > ʔ in Rote Motion moʔu (J:363) moʔu moʔu moʔu n-mofu n-mofu n-mofu (M:328) mouf {2} mofut mou Bima, CTimor 653 *mola *mola-k PRM node, joint node ; joint *l > Ø Meto; glottal stop insertion in Amarasi Plants, plant parts mola-k (J:361) (mole-ʔ ?) mola-k mola-ʔ mola-ʔ mola-k mola-k mola-ʔ mola-ʔ moʔo|k (M:527,545,586) 654 *mone PRM male, man male ; man *maRuqanay ‘male’ PRM had two reflexes of *maRuqanay: *mane and *mone. Both of which are attested in wRote, Ba'a, and Tii. The meaning of both forms was probably ‘male, man’ in PRM. Most of Rote lost *mone, Meto lost *mane, while wRote, Ba'a and Tii differentiated the semantics of the two terms. *mone People mone_feu-k mone_feu-k mone mone {2} monae-ʔ mone {2} monae-ʔ mone mone {2} moen feʔu mone (M:330) mone mone 655 *mone|ʔ PMeto outside outside *ma-udəhi ‘behind, last’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PCEMP *m-udi. A PMeto doublet with (regular) *au > o is required to account for the Meto forms meaning ‘outside’. The initial syllable and medial consonant are regular from *ma-udəhi > PRM *more-k. Final *əhi > e is possibly irregular, though the only other reflex is *binəhiq > fini ‘seed’. There is a conceptual link in Atoni though between moneʔ outside and mone ‘male’ and this folk-etymology may have led to final e rather than i. *muri Spatial relations mone|ʔ mone|ʔ mone|ʔ (M:330) molin 656 *mono PnMeto stupid stupid ; dumb Cognition n-mono mono (M:331) monon (dJ:128) Helong, Wetar 657 *monu Rote fall fall Motion monu (J:362) monu monu monu monu monu monu monu monu (Mo:143) monu ETimor 658 *moo *na-ka-moo PRM hold in lips bite ; hold in mouth Food and drink na-ka-moo (J:358) na-ka-moo na-ka-moo na-ka-moo na-moo na-ka-moo na-ka-moo na-ʔa-moo na-ʔa-moo na-ʔ|moo 659 *mopu *ka-mopu-k PRM old, dead palm tree palm, dead ; palm, trunk *p > Ø in Korbafo and Oenale; *m > mb in Oenale PMP *p is usually lost in Oenale and PMP *p > ʔ in Korbafo. However, PRM *p is expected to be retained unchanged in both lects. Plants, tree, palm, plant parts mopu-k (J:362) mou-ʔ mopu-k mbou-ʔ ʔ|mopu|ʔ ʔ|mopu|ʔ (M:331) 660 *moris PRM live live *ma-qudip ‘living, alive’ expected *p > s /_# (§3.5.1.3) *horis Body moli {2} molis (J:361) moli moli moli mori moli mori moli mori n-moni n-moni n-moni (M:330) moin moris moris, mouris (Mo:144) mori (dJ:128) 661 *mukə *mukə-k Rote wild dove dove *mukən ‘omen dove’ k-9 *ə > e /σ_# in wRote (perhaps *ə > *a > e /_#) Creatures, birds, creature taxon muʔe-k (J:364) muʔe-ʔ muke-ʔ muʔe-k muʔe-k muʔe-ʔ muʔe-ʔ k|ma~muaʔ-r=aa hmukan lamuka(n) (Mo:127) lamukan 662 *mulu PRM crazy crazy diphthongisation *u > au in Meto Cognition ka-mulu-s {2} mulu-k {3} na-mulu (J:366) ka-mulu-ʔ ka-mulu-s ka-mulu-ʔ ma-mulu-ʔ ka-mulu-s ka-mulu-k ma-mulu-ʔ ma-mulu-ʔ na-maunu na-maunu (M:316) 663 *mumu₁ Rote hold in the mouth and suck suck *mulmul Food and drink mumu (J:366) mumu mumu mumu mumu mumu mumu mumu 664 *mumu₂ *na-ka-mumu Rote gargle, rinse the mouth gargle ; rinse *muRmuR Food and drink na-ka-mumu (J:366) na-ka-mumu na-ka-mumu na-ka-mumu na-mumu na-ka-mumu na-ka-mumu na-ʔa-mumu na-ʔa-mumu mumun 665 *munde *ka-munde PRM citrus tree citrus ; lime (fruit) *muntay *nt > *nd (expect *t) Plants, edible plants, fruit mune (J:366) mune mune dero munde munde °munde mune munde munde munde muri ʔ|mukiʔ (M:333) 666 *muri PRM youngest, last, west last ; youngest ; west *ma-udəhi ‘behind, last’ PCEMP *m-udi *mone|ʔ Spatial relations muli-k {2} muli (J:365) muli-ʔ {2} muli muli-k {2} muli muli-ʔ {2} muli muri-ʔ {2} muri muli-k {2} muli muri-k {2} muri muli-ʔ {2} muli muri-ʔ {2} muri mu͡ini|f muni|f {2} na-muni muni|f {2} na-muni (M:334) muni|f mudi {2} hmudin 667 *muse₁ *muse-ʔ PwRM seed, pip seed ; pip **musa pre-RM vowel height harmony *e > i /uC_ in Ro'is Amarasi Positing earlier **musa with final *a > e in wRM can account for the wRM and Tetun forms based on attested sound changes. However, it cannot account regularly for the Hawu form. Earlier **muse could possible account for the Hawu form, but cannot account regularly for the Tetun form. Plants, plant parts ɓoa_muse-ʔ musi|ʔ musan (Mo:144) lamuhi ETimor, Hawu-Dhao, Flores 668 *muse₂ *muse-k CER white civet civet *musaŋ ‘civet cat and similar small predatory mammals of the family Viverridae’ *a > *e The Rote forms would be regular from **musəŋ. Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon mu~muse-k (J:366) mu~muse-ʔ mu~muse-k 669 *musi PRM suck suck Food and drink na-sa-musi {2} musi (J:366) na-sa-musi na-sa-musi na-ka-musi na-sa-musi na-sa-musi na-sa-musi musi na-sa-musi musi n-musi n-musi (M:335) n.a. (mumus) 670 *musu PRM enemy enemy The Rote-Meto forms may be borrowings from Malay musuh. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct *busuR which may be irregularly related. Social and political relations, people musu (J:367) musu musu musu musu musu musu musu musu musu musu (M:335) musu muhu {2} pemuhu Helong 671 *muta PRM vomit vomit *um-utaq PCEMP *mutaq Body, emission muta {2} muta-s (J:367) muta muta muta muta muta muta muta muta n-muta n-muut (M:335) muta muta (Mo:144) madu 672 *muti *muti-k nRM white white *ma-putiq Sense perception muti/foe-k muti/foe-k {2} kue_muti-k muti|ʔ muti|ʔ {2} k|muti-f muti|ʔ (M:336) muti|ʔ mutiʔ mutin, mutik (Mo:144) 673 *muut PRM kind of insect insect, kind ; mosquito Osmond (2011b:416) reconstructs Proto-Polynesian *mū ‘flying insect’, the reflexes of which designate mainly moths and dragonflies. likely onomatopoeia, vague Rote semantics weaken reconstruction Creatures, bugs, insects, insects with wings mu~muu (J:363) mu~muu mu~muu mu~muu mu~muu mu~muu mu~muu mu~muu mu~muu muut muut 674 *mbaa nRM meat, flesh meat ; flesh *aa > ee in Fatule'u Body, internal organs paa (J:459) paa paa paa paa paa paa mpaa mbaa mbaa (M:410) pee-k Bima 675 *mbada *mbada-k PRM short in height, squat and compact in build, of a person short *pandak d-2 *p > *mb, *nd > *d *pande Spatial relations pala_mata-k (J:465f) pala_mata-k mpala_mata-k mbala_mata-ʔ mbara_mata-ʔ para|ʔ para|ʔ pala|ʔ (M:415) pa~para|ʔ kbadak badak (Mo:7) 676 *mbae Rote swell up, swollen swell *baRəq ‘abscess, boil, swelling on the body’ *b > *mb regular *ə > e /_q# Body, sickness pae (J:462) pae pae pae pae mpae mbae mbae mbae hale ɓai 677 *mbai CERM rotten rotten *baRiw beginning to spoil, tainted (of food left uneaten too long) *b > *mb Jonker also gives Tii na-sa-pai but indicates that this is questionable. If confirmed, this would indicate nRM *pai. Food and drink na-sa-pai (J:463) ma-sa-pai ma-sa-pai na-sa-mpai, ma-sa-mpai n-pai pai (M:412) (vou-)ɓai mbai Bima, Hawu-Dhao 678 *mbaki PRM beetle beetle k-9ʹ (*k = k in Bokai; expect *k > ʔ) *i > e in Meto Creatures, bugs, insects, insects with wings paʔi (J:463) paʔi paki paki paʔi mpaʔi mbaʔi mbaʔi mbaʔi paʔe paʔe (mo)kebaki Hawu-Dhao 679 *mbala PRM co-wife, concubine co-wife ; concubine People, kin pala {2} na-pala (J:465) pala pala pala pala mpala-k mbala mbala-ʔ mbala panaʔ {2} n-panaʔ (M:418) panaʔ 680 *mbalu PRM cover, enclose cover ; enclose *balun ‘bind, bundle, wrap in cloth; death shroud; cloth(ing)’ *b > *mb *balu₃ Spatial relations palu (J:466) palu palu mpalu mbalu mbalu ma-ʔa-mbalu-ʔ {2} (M:421) 681 *mbana *mbana-k PRM tip, end; nose nose ; tip Body, head pana-k (J:467) pana-ʔ pana-k pana-ʔ idu_pana-ʔ mpana-k mbana-k mbana-ʔ mbana-ʔ pana-f pana-f pana-f (M:419) 682 *mbao Rote mango mango *qambawaŋ ‘large mango |ui{Mangifera odorata}’ PWMP *mb > p in Dengka Plants, edible plants, fruit pao (J:468) pao pao pao pao mpao mbao pao mbao 683 *mba|raa *mba|raa-k PRM old (things) old *daqan ‘old, ancient’ The Rote languages attest an earlier element *mba (which is attested as semi-productive verbal prefix) while Meto attests earlier stative prefix *ma-. Furthermore, the reflexes of PMP *d are regular for medial *d, thus indicating that the initial *mba element was added before PRM. The best solution currently appears to be to posit PRM *mba|raa with irr. *mb > m in Meto motivated by pressure from the stative prefix *ma-, thus pre-Meto **maraa. Time palaa-k {2} na-palaa (J:465) palaa-ʔ palaa-k palaa-ʔ paraa-ʔ mpalaa-k mbaraa-k mbalaa-ʔ mbaraa-ʔ m|naa|ʔ m|naa|ʔ m|naʔa-k blaan 684 *mbasa PwRM slap slap **mbasaR pre-RM possibly connected with PMP *sambak with consonant metathesis, though the final consonants of the pre-RM form would also need to be accounted for Actions mba~mbasaʔ mbasa {2} mba~mbasaʔ n-pasa n-pasa (M:424) papas basa (Mo:10) paas (dJ:132) pahar Helong, ETimor, Wetar, SW Maluku, Flores, CTimor 685 *mbau₁ *ka-mbau-k PRM kind of beam beam glottal stop insertion in Amfo'an House pa~pau-k (J:471) pa~pau-ʔ pa~pau-k pa~pau-ʔ pa~pau-ʔ dii mpa~mpau-k mba~mbau-k mba~mbau-ʔ ʔ|paʔu-f 686 *mbau₂ PRM stab, prick, pound stab ; prick ; pound *bayu ‘pound rice’ *b > *mb Actions pau (J:470) pau pau pau pau mpau mbau mbau mbau na-pau na-pau na-pau (M:427) ta-pau hai fai (Mo:31) pai (dJ:132) 687 *mbeɗa PRM put down put ; place (v.) *mb > b ~ p in Meto Spatial relations peda (J:472) peda peda peda peda mpeda mbeɗa mbeɗa mbeɗa n-pera {2} na-bera na-pela, na-bela (M:56,xxxix) 688 *mbeʔu nRM lie down lie down ; sleepy ; sleep Spatial relations na-ŋa-peʔu-k (J:482) na-ka-peʔu-ʔ na-ŋa-peʔu-k na-peʔu-ʔ na-peʔu-ʔ na-ka-mpeʔu-k na-ka-mbeʔu-k peʔu-n {2} (M:437) peuʔ n-peʔu-g 689 *mbela *mbela-k PRM Job’s tears maize ; sorghum Jonker (1912:21) gives Laura (language of Sumba, ISO 639-3 [lur]) bəla ‘millet’ (Dutch gierst) as cognate but I have been unable to confirm the existence of this in the (very sparse) available sources for Laura. This is the only PRM crop term which does not appear reconstructible to a higher node. Given this, and the fact that both sorghum and corn (which this term designates in daughter languages) are not native to this region, this term probably originally designated a native plant with later semantic shift as new crops were assimilated to the category of old crops. The most likely candidate is Job’s tears, |ui{Coix lacryma-jobi}, of which a wild subspecies is present in the region. Verheijen (1984:14) states, concerning Job’s tears: ‘The wild native subspecies agrestis of which the stony seeds with a very tiny pip are still used as beads, greatly resembles the cultivated subspecies ma-yuen. It is very probable that the introduced edible species was named after the wild plant, which then fell into the background. I am inclined to surmise that in this way names from substratum languages were saved. That may explain the enormous diversity of names in east Indonesia and the Philippines.’ PRM *mbela appears to be such an example of a substratum term which was retained after the shift to an Austronesian language. Plants, edible plants, crops pela-k {2} pela hii-k (J:477, 181) pela-ʔ {2} pela hii-ʔ pela-k {2} pela hii-k pela-ʔ {2} pela dae-ʔ pela-ʔ {2} pela dae-ʔ mpela-k {2} mpela hia-k mbela-k {2} mbela hie-k mbela-ʔ {2} mbela ɗae-ʔ mbela-ʔ {2} mbela hie-ʔ pena|ʔ pena|ʔ {2} peen minaʔ pena|ʔ (M:431) pena|ʔ 690 *mbena Rote fly fly *bəRŋaw Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct both *bəRŋaw and *baŋaw. *aw > *a *b > *mb *a > e /_# in wRote Helong attests earlier **mbeŋa. *ka|benu Creatures, bugs, insects, insects with wings, creature taxon pena (J:479) pena pena pena pena-ʔ pena mpena mbena mbene mbene lael_peŋa 691 *mbesik PRM throw down throw *i > e in Meto Motion pesi (J:480) pesi pesi pesi pesi mpesi mbesi(k) mbesi-ʔ mbesi-ʔ n-pesek pəhi Hawu-Dhao 692 *mbeta CERM wet wet The Meto unmetathesised form has not yet been attested. It could be *na-peta or *na-pete. Sense perception ma-ka-peta-k (J:481) ma-peta-ʔ ma-ka-mpeta-k na-peet na-peet (M:435) 693 *mbetak PRM swollen, sore swell Body, sickness peta (J:481) peta peta peta peta mpeta mbeta mbeta mbeta mbeta n-petak n-petak (M:436) petaŋ peken Helong, SW Maluku 694 *mbii PRM pull taut tight ; Achilles’ tendon Actions na-ka-pii {2} ei_pi~pii-k (J:483) na-ka-pii na-ka-pii na-ka-pii na-pii na-ka-mpii na-ka-mbii na-ka-mbii na-ka-mbii pii_ko͡ete-f na-ʔ-pii {2} n-pii {3} pii_ʔote-f {2} {3} pii_ʔote-n {4} (M:437) 695 *mbiko PRM kind of coniferous tree Podocarpus rumphii |ui{Podocarpus rumphii} k-6 Plants, tree, plant taxon piko (J:484, Fox 2016b:46) piko piko piko piko mpiko mbiko mbiʔo 696 *mbila PRM blaze, emit light blaze ; flame (v.) ; red *bilak ‘shine, glitter’ *b > *mb Physical world, fire pila {2} pila-s (J:484f) pila {2} pila-ʔ pila {2} pila-k pila {2} pila-ʔ pila {2} pilas mpila {2} mpila-s mbila {2} mbila-s mbila {2} mbila-s mbila {2} mbila-s n-pina n-pina n-pina (M:438) bilan (Mo:15) 697 *mbinu PRM snot snot possibly connected with PMP *hiŋus, though the initial *mb is unexplained. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct *piŋus based on a comparison of Rote (presumably Termanu) pinu and a Cebuano form piŋús-piŋús. The Tii, Dengka and Oenale forms with initial mb in this cognate set indicate that, unless more cognates are forthcoming, the comparison of Termanu pinu and Cebuano piŋús-piŋús is sheer chance (PMP *p > mb is never attested in western Rote). Blust and Trussel (ongoing) do correctly note that the normal reflex of *p in Rote is h. However, in support of their etymology for Rote pinu from *piŋus they note that in some forms it is reflected as p. They give *papan > papa ‘plank, board’ and *picik > pisi ‘to sprinkle, spray (water)’ as examples. In each of these examples the cognates in all Rote varieties, including Tii, Dengka and Oenale have p, with the exception of Ba'a which has mp. These forms thus do not show the same sound correspondences as *mbinu ‘snot’. Instead, both these words are loans. (p is often borrowed in Ba'a as mp.) Body, emission pinu (J:486) pinu pinu pinu pinu mpinu mbinu mbinu mbinu pinu 698 *mbisa *mbisa-k Rote kind of basket made from lontar leaves basket Tools pisa-k (J:486) pisa-k pisa-k pisa-k pisa-ʔ mpisa-k mbisa-ʔ mbisa-ʔ kebiha Hawu-Dhao 699 *mboes *ka-mboes PRM shrimp, prawn shrimp ; prawn Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon poe-k (J:489) poe-ʔ poe-k poe-ʔ poe-ʔ poe-ʔ mpoe-k mboe-k mboe-ʔ mboe-ʔ k|poes poes {2} na-k|poe poes (M:444) poe-k boek (Mo:16) waʔihe voe ETimor, SW Maluku, Hawu-Dhao 700 *mbonu *ka-mbonu-k nRM thick hair, mane mane ; hair ; eyebrows ; moustache Body, head, hair po~ponu-k (J:495) po~ponu-ʔ po~ponu-k po~ponu-ʔ {2} na-po~ponu po~ponu-ʔ mpo~mponu-k mbo~mbonu-k po͡unu-f ponu-f ʔ|pono-f (M:448) 701 *mboo *mboo-k PRM hole, wide open hole ; wide open glottal stop insertion in Meto Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PMP *buhaŋ ‘hole, pit’ which may be irregularly connected. Spatial relations poo~poo {2} poo-k {3} na-po~poo {4} na-poo-k (J:487) poo~poo {2} poo-ʔ poo~poo {2} poo-k poo~poo {2} poo-ʔ poo~poo {2} poo-ʔ mpoo~mpoo mboo~mboo {2} mboo-k mboo~mboo mboo~mboo poʔo {2} poʔo-f pa~poʔo-f boo Hawu-Dhao 702 *mbori PRM pour on pour Actions poli (J:494) poli poli poli pori mpoli mbori mboli mbori n-poni n-poni (M:448) 703 *mboro PRM palm leaves leaf, palm *r > l in Rikou Plants, tree, palm, plant parts polo-k (J:494) polo-ʔ polo-k polo-ʔ polo-ʔ mpolo-k mboro-k mboro-ʔ pono pono pono (M:448) pola Helong 704 *mbosi PRM release, set loose release *s > ʔ in most Rote Possession poʔi (J:490) poʔi poʔi poi {2} posi poʔi mpoʔi mboʔi mboʔi mboʔi na-t|posiʔ °natpusi habusik, husik (Mo:41) ETimor, Maluku 705 *mbou PRM blanket, cloth cloth *VV-k > *VVʔ > VʔV in Meto (perceptual metathesis) Clothing and grooming pou {2} pou-k (J:498) pou {2} pau-ʔ pou {2} pau-k pou pou {2} pau-ʔ mpou {2} mpou-k, mpau-k {2} mbou-ʔ poʔu poʔu (M:451) kaboon ETimor 706 *mbuah PRM betel nut, areca palm palm, areca ; areca palm ; betel nut *buaq ‘fruit; areca palm and nut; grain; berry; seed; nut; endosperm of a sprouting coconut; kidney; heart; finger; calf of the leg; testicle; various insects; scar tissue; roe; bud; flower; blossom; bear fruit; words, speech, or songs; meaning, contents of discussion; numeral classifier for roundish objects; buttock; Adam’s apple; nipple of the breast; button; marble; tattooing’ *q > *h; *b > *mb Irregular *b > *mb is attested in many languages of the region for reflexes of *buaq meaning ‘betel nut’ and *mb can be reconstructed to proto-Timor-Babar, perhaps even to a higher node. *bua Plants, edible pua (J:499) pua pua pua pua pua mpua mbua mbua mbua puah puah puah (M:452) puah, puha pua bua (Mo:18) pua (dJ:133) poo boo 707 *mbuat PwRM spread out yarn yarn, spread out Final t could be the nominaliser -t. Clothing and grooming mbu~mbuat puat puat (M:452) pu~puat Helong 708 *mbui PRM quail, bird quail ; bird *puyuq ‘quail’ PWMP *p > *mb Irregular *p > mb is also attested in Palu'e. Creatures, birds manu_pui (J:347) manu_pui(-ʔ) manu_pui manu_pui-ʔ man_pui-ʔ manu_pui-ʔ mpui-k mbui-k mbui-k mbui-ʔ manu_mbui-ʔ pui pui (M:453) 709 *mbuku₁ PRM mushroom, toadstool mushroom k-6 Plants puku (J:501) puku puku puku puku mpuku mbuku mbuʔu mbuʔu puʔu , (M:451) puʔu buu/manu Helong 710 *mbuku₂ Rote bent, hunchback bent ; hill *bukuq ‘bend, bent, bowed’ k-5 *b > *mb Body puku {2} puku-k {3} (lete) pu~puku-k (J:502) puku {3} pu~puku-ʔ puku {3} pu~puku-k puku {3} pu~puku-ʔ puku {3} pu~puku-ʔ mpuku {3} mpu~mpuku-k mbuku {3} mbu~mbuku-k mbuku {3} mbu~mbuku-ʔ {3} mbu~mbuku-ʔ leten pupuku buku 711 *mbule *mbule-k PRM grain head grain head ; corn cob *buliR ‘(entire) stalk of bananas; ear of grain’ *b > *mb *i > *e /_*R# The Tetun, Helong and Kisar reflexes are regular from initial *b. Plants, edible plants, crops pule-k (J:502) pule-ʔ pule-k pule-ʔ pule-ʔ mpule-k mbule-k mbule-k mbule-ʔ mbule-ʔ pune|ʔ pune|ʔ (M:532) bulin fulin (Mo:37) wurna 712 *mbulə PwRM wind around, twist around twist ; wind (v.) *ə > e /σ_# in wRote (perhaps *ə > *a > e /_#) All Rote lects (except Bilbaa) also have pole ‘bind around, tie around, e.g. the muzzle of an animal’ (Jonker 1908:493). Motion mbule mbule n-puna n-puna {2} na-puun (M:455) 713 *mbumbu Rote expand, swollen expand ; swollen Spatial relations pupu (J:504) pupu mpumpu mbumbu mbumbu bubu (Mo:18) ETimor 714 *mbune PRM tree with edible fruit Antidesma bunius |ui{Antidesma bunius} *buRnay PWMP *b > *mb Plants, tree, plant taxon pune (J:503) pune pune pune pune mpune mbune mbune mbune , (M:455) 715 *mbunut *ka-mbunut PRM coconut husk, coir coconut husk ; coir *bunut *b > *mb The Helong, Tetun, and Welaun reflexes all also attest initial *mb for pre-RM. Plants, tree, palm, coconut, plant parts punu-k (J:504) punu-ʔ punu-k punu-ʔ punu-ʔ punu-ʔ mpunu-k mbunu-k mbunu-k mbunut mbunut ʔ|punu-f {2} na-ʔ|punu|ʔ a-ʔlotos na-ʔ|punu|ʔ (M:456) punut bunuk (Mo:19) kabunut keɓunu 716 *mburuk PRM rotten rotten *buRuk *b > *mb; *R = *r (expect Ø) Food and drink pulu-k (J:503) pulu-ʔ pulu-k pulu-ʔ puru-ʔ mpulu-k mbulu-k mburu-k mbuluk mburu-ʔ n-punu n-punu (M:456) 717 *mbusər PRM sweat sweat *ə > (*a) > e /_# in Meto Body, emission puse (J:504) puse puse puse puse mpuse mbuse mbusa {2} na-ʔa-mbusa mbusa {2} na-ʔa-mbusa mbusar puus, puse {2} n-puus puus {2} n-puus (M:457) kebəhu kabβəsu Hawu-Dhao, Sulawesi 718 *mbusu *mbusu-k nRM thigh thigh *s > Ø in nRote Body, limbs, legs puu-k (J:499) puu-ʔ puu-k puu-ʔ puu-ʔ puu-ʔ mpuu-k mbuu-k pusu-f pusu-f pusu-f (M:458) pusu-f 719 *mbutu₁ PRM hot, burning hot ; burning *hotu burn Sense perception putu {2} na-putu (J:505) putu putu putu putu mbutu mbutu mbutu ma|putu|ʔ n-putu {2} putu|ʔ {3} ma|putu|ʔ n-putu (M:459) puut {2} ma|putu|ʔ otot mˀutu (On:295) Helong, ETimor, Sumba, Maluku 720 *mbutu₂ Rote tie up in a bundle bundle up ; tie *butu ‘group, crowd, flock, school, bunch, cluster’ PCEMP *b > *mb *futu Actions pu~putu (J:505) pu~putu pu~putu pu~putu mpu~mputu mbu~mbutu mbu~mbutu butuk (Mo:19) 721 *mbuu PRM make a noise sound ; noise *u > o in Meto onomatopoeia Speech and language puu (J:498) puu puu puu puu mpuu mbuu mbuu mbuu na-poo na-poo (M:442) 722 *naa₁ PRM that, there that ; there *-na ‘distal spatio-temporal deixis: that, there; then’ Spatial relations naa {2} ana, -n (J:367, 12, Jonker 1915:332ff) naa {2} ana naa {2} ana naa {2} ana naa {2} ana naa {2} ana naa {2} ana naa {2} ana naa {2} ana naa 723 *naa₂ *naa-k PRM woman’s brother brother (of woman) *ñaRa ‘brother (woman speaking)’ *a > o in Meto *VV-k > *VVʔ > VʔV in Meto (perceptual metathesis) People, kin naa-k (J:368) naa-ʔ naa-k naa-ʔ naa-ʔ naa-k naa-k naa-ʔ naa-ʔ nao-f nao-f, naʔo naʔo naan (Mo:145) nara(n) (dJ:130) 724 *naa₃ Rote Papua New Guinea rosewood Pterocarpus indica |ui{Pterocarpus indica} *naRa Meijer Drees (1950) gives Meto , and as |ui{Planchonia valida} and |ui{Barringtonia spicata}, and as |ui{Pterocarpus indica}. Plants, tree, plant taxon naa (J:368) naa naa naa naa naa naa-k naa naa ai naa (Mo:2, 145) 725 *naa₄ *naa-k Rote gebang palm fibres fibres *qanahaw sugar palm: Arenga spp. The initial parts of some of the Rote terms are analysable as reflexes of *ekut ‘palm fibres, woven ring from palm fibres’. Plants, tree, palm, plant parts eke_naa-k (J:110) eke_naa-ʔ eke_naa-k heke/na-ʔ (henaa-ʔ ?) heke/naa-k aki/naa-k ɗaʔi/naa daʔi/naa naa {2} naa tais (Mo:145) 726 *nada PMeto gums gums *ŋadas ‘palate’ *d = *d (expect *n) *ŋɡadas Body, head, mouth nara-f nara-f (M:342) nara-f nala-n 727 *nade *ka-nade PRM taro, grass taro ; grass d-2 *e > i in wRM, Ba'a, Termanu and Bokai possibly connected with Malay keladi, though l > n in Rote would be unexplained The semantic connection between Rote and Meto is dubious. Plants nali (J:378) nale nali nale (nale ?) nali nare nali-ʔ nari-ʔ nari|ʔ ʔ|nari|ʔ ʔ|lali (M:260) ʔ|lali-ʤ 728 *naɗo Rote look upward look up *ŋadaq PWMP *a > *o (also Ende) *d > *ɗ Sense perception nado (J:371) nado nado nado nado naɗo olo/naɗo oro/naɗo ŋada tanaat (Mo:180) 729 *naʤa *naʤa-k Rote name name *ŋajan *j > *ʤ (expect *ɗ) *a > e /C+palatal_ in nRote Given that the Meto forms are not inheritances from *naʤa-k, the correspondence sets are consistent with both *ʤ (see *fuʤə ‘foam’) or *d. Reconstruction of medial *d provides no explanation for the change of final *a > e in Nuclear Rote. By reconstructing medial *ʤ we can propose that this vowel change is due to the previous palatal consonant before the change of *ʤ > ɗ/d. An alternate reconstruction which can account for these reflexes would be **nadə, but this requires positing otherwise unattested final PMP *a to PRM *ə. Speech and language nade-k (J:370) nade-ʔ nade-k nade-ʔ nade=na nade-ʔ nade-k naɗe-k naɗe-k nala-ʔ nara-ʔ nara=na °kana-f °kana-f °kana-f (M:178) °kana-f ŋala naran (Mo:152) nean (dJ:130) gala-n 730 *nae PRM big, large big ; many ; grow *Raya *R > *n *e > i in Kusa-Manea One possible source of the unexpected *n in PRM is historic compounding of reflexes of *maRuqanay (*mone or *mane) with *Raya > **ae. Such a form is still attested in Hawu and may be the source of Dela-Oenale monae-ʔ (see *mone). The Dela-Oenale, Dengka and Meto forms without initial mo or ma could then be subsequent reanalysis of ma as a prefix. However, this explanation does not account for the Bima form nae which also has unexpected initial n, suggesting that the irregular appearance of this consonant is much earlier than PRM. Spatial relations na-ma-nae na-anae {2} ma-nae-ʔ {3} na-ma-nae nae {2} mo/nae-ʔ nae-ʔ {2} mo/nae-ʔ, ma/nae-ʔ na-ʔ|nae na-ʔ|nae {2} ʔ|nae|k {3} ʔ|nae|f {4} kbenu_ʔ|naes na-ʔ|nae (M:340) bi/nai|ʔ ʔ|nae|k mone ae nae 731 *nafu Rote to anchor anchor (v.) *nabuq ‘fall’ Motion, boats nafu {2} nafu-k (J:373) nafu nafu nafu nafu nafu nafu nafu nafu penavu 732 *nafu|ʔ PnMeto body hair, feather hair, body ; feather **rafu pre-Meto Body, torso nafuʔ nafuʔ nafuʔ nafuʔ rahun Flores, ETimor 733 *nahe *ka-nahe-k CERM mat mat *hapin ‘liner, layer, insulation, padding; sleeping mat’ *i > *e; *Ø > *n vowel metathesis in Meto *eCa > aCe I have reconstructed *nahe with penultimate *a rather than *neha on the basis of the external evidence from Tetun (and PMP). While Meto has more instances of vowel metathesis than the Rote languages, it would be difficult to explain the connection between the Meto and Tetun forms as a result of borrowing due to the semantic difference. Thus, *neha would require two independent instances of vowel metathesis. *nahe, on the other hand, only requires one instance of vowel metathesis in CERM. *nehi House neʔa-k (J:385) neʔa-ʔ neʔa-k nea nea-ʔ ʔ|nahe|k (M:341) nahe kneheʔ nehe naʔe nahe (Mo:146) Helong, Etimor 734 *nako Rote steal steal *nakaw k-5ʹ (*k > ʔ in Tii and Dengka; expect *k = k) Social and political relations, law na-ma-nako {2} nako (J:374) na-ma-nako na-ma-nako {2} naʔo na-ma-nako {2} naʔo {3} nako/ɗaa na-ma-naʔo na-ma-naʔo na-ma-nako nako hamnaʔo (Mo:71) menaʔo 735 *nama PRM creep creep Helong attests earlier initial *l. Initial *n in PRM could be sporadic assimilation to the following nasal. Motion nama, nama~nama (J:379) nama~nama nama~nama nama~nama nama~nama nama~nama nama~nama nama~nama nama~nama (M:346) naklama Helong 736 *namo₁ *ka-namo nRM senna (kind of tree) Senna timoriensis |ui{Senna timoriensis} Plants, tree, plant taxon na~namo (J:379) na~namo na~namo na~namo na~namo na~namo k|namo|ʔ 737 *namo₂ PRM coast, beach coast ; beach *namaw ‘sheltered water: deep place in a river; cove, harbor, lagoon’ Physical world, sea namo (J:379) namo namo namo namo namo namo namo namo namo (M:347) namon (Mo:151) namo(n) (dJ:129) 738 *namba *ka-namba-k nRM leaves covering fruit leaf, covering Plants, plant parts napa-k (J:380) napa napa-k napa napa namba-k ma-k|napa-ʔ uki k|napa|ʔ (M:222) 739 *nana *nana-k Rote pus pus *nanaq Body, internal organs nana-k (J:380) nana-ʔ nana-k nana-ʔ nana-ʔ nana-k nana-k nana-ʔ nana-ʔ 740 *naŋe Rote swim swim *naŋuy *uy > *e (expect *i) *ŋ = *ŋ (required for Termanu and Korbafo) *n > Ø in most nRote (reanalysis as agreement?) The Rote forms are possible borrowings from Helong. This could explain ŋ in Termanu and Korbafo. Final *uy > e would also be irregular in Helong, but proposing that the Rote forms are borrowings from Helong requires positing irregular sound changes in one less instance. Motion (ʔ)aŋe (J:12) (ʔ)aŋe (ʔ)ane (ʔ)ane (ʔ)ane ʔane (ʔ)ane nane nane nane naŋen nani (Mo:152) 741 *naru PRM long, length long ; tall *anaduq Reflexes of the doublet *adaduq > *daru are (apparently) not found in wRote. This indicates that the Meto forms are probably inheritances of *anaduq > *naru even though they would also be regular from *adaduq. *daru Spatial relations ma-nalu {2} nalu {3} nalu-k, ma-nalu-k (J:378) ma-nalu ma-nalu ma-nalu naru-ʔ ma-nalu ma-nalu ma-naru nalu-ʔ naru-ʔ naru-ʔ m|nanu|ʔ m|nanu|ʔ m|nanu|ʔ (M:583) naruk (Mo:152) 742 *nase *ka-nase PRM fish, Blue-spot Mullet Moolgarda seheli fish, Blue-spot mullet *kanasay The initial *ka of the PMP form was probably reanalysed as the nominal prefix in PRM. Creatures, aquatic creatures, fish, creature taxon nase (J:381) nase nase nase nase nase nase nase nase k|naes hnase knase {2} manu knase (Mo:113) 743 *nasi PRM jackal jujube (kind of fruit tree) Ziziphus oenoplia |ui{Ziziphus oenoplia} Helong attests earlier *ŋ. Plants, tree, plant taxon asi/nasi (J:15, Heyne 1950:1003,cxv) asi/nasi kai_nasi ai_nasi asi/nasi asi/nasi ŋɡa/nasi ŋɡa/nasi ai knase (Mo:113) Helong, ETimor 744 *nasu PRM cook by boiling cook ; boil *nasu Food and drink nasu (J:381) nasu nasu nasu nasu nasu nasu nasu nasu n-nasu n-nasu (M:352) 745 *natu *natu-k PRM ovary, gamete ovary ; gamete *natuq ‘ovary of an oviparous animal’ Body, internal organs natu-k, {2} manu natu-k, {3} manu tolo natu-k (J:382) natu-ʔ natu-k natu-ʔ natu-ʔ natu-k natu-k natu-ʔ natu-ʔ natu-f natuʔ keradu 746 *natu|n PRM hundred hundred *sa-ŋa-Ratus Inherited via intermediate **ŋatus. While the final *n may be a fossilised suffix, which suffix it would be is unclear. Quantity natun (J:382) natun natun natun natun natun natun natun natun na͡utun natun natun (M:355) natun ŋatus atus (Mo:5) rahu ŋahu ŋasu 747 *nee₁ PRM six six *ənəm *ə > Ø /#_ (or final *VC > CV metathesis) Quantity nee (J:383) nee nee nee nee nee nee nee nee nee nee (M:358) nee eneŋ neen (Mo:153) ha-neen (dJ:94,130) woneme neem, neme, həneem, eneem inam əna 748 *nee₂ PRM quiet, still, at rest quiet ; still ; calm *qənəŋ *ə > Ø with doubling of the final vowel to create a disyllable, or medial VC > CV metathesis Sense perception nee~nee {2} na-ma-nee (J:384) nee~nee {2} na-ma-nee nee~nee {2} na-ma-nee nee~nee {2} na-ma-nee {2} na-ma-nee nee~nee {2} na-ma-nee nee~nee {2} na-ma-nee nee~nee {2} na-ma-nee nee~nee {2} na-ma-nee na-m|nee hanook (Mo:76) 749 *nehi Rote mat mat ; lie on **nepi pre-RM Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PMP *təpiR which is the source of Hawu dəpi and Dhao ɖʐəpi. However, initial *t cannot regularly account for initial n in the Rote or Bima forms. *nahe House neʔi {2} ne~neʔi-k (J:386f) neʔi neʔi nei neʔi {2} ne~neʔi-k {2} ne~neʔi-k neʔi {2} (ne~)neʔi-k {2} ne~nei-ʔ {2} ne~nei-ʔ {2} ne~nei-ʔ nepi Bima 750 *neko *neko-k nRM abomasum (the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants which secretes rennet) stomach ; abomasum k-5/6 Body, internal organs neko-(k) (J:387) neko-k neko-n 751 *nembə *nembə-k Rote hard, fixed hard ; fixed *təbəl ‘thick, of objects; dense, of crowds’ *t > *n; *b > *mb *n > m in Bilbaa and Rikou Sense perception nepe-k (J:391) nepe nepe-k mepe-ʔ mepe-ʔ nempe-k nemba-ʔ 752 *nene₁ PRM press, push push ; press *n > ʔ in Rote except Bilbaa and Rikou Actions neʔe (J:386) neʔe neʔe nene nene neʔe neʔe neʔe n-nene na-nene (M:362) 753 *nene₂ Rote hear, listen hear ; listen Perhaps connected with PMP *dəŋəR, though this requires irregular initial *d > *n and final *ə > *e (expect final *ə = *ə). Furthermore, *dəŋəR is retained regularly in Oenale and Meto (see *rena). Sense perception na-ma-nene {2} nene~nene {3} ne~nene (J:388) na-ma-nene na-ma-nene na-ma-nene na-ma-nene na-ma-nene ni-mi-nene na-ma-nene, i-mi-nene na-ma-nene na-ma-nene 754 *neo Rote shy, jealous jealous Emotions and values neo (J:390) neo neo na-neo neo neo neo neo neo na-ma-neo neo Helong 755 *neru *na-ma-neru Rote warm oneself warm oneself *e > i in several Rote lects (sporadic assimilation) Reconstruction of penultimate *e requires irr. *e > i in at least three separate cases: West Rote (Oenale, Dengka), central Rote (Termanu, Bilbaa), and Hawu. However, this sound change can be motivated as a case of sporadic assimilation to the following high vowel and/or an earlier palatal nasal (as attested in Hawu). Reconstruction of penultimate *e would require unmotivated *i > e in at least two cases: eastern Rote (Korbafo, Bokai, Rikou) and Ba'a. Sense perception na-ma-nilu (J:397) na-ma-nelu na-ma-nelu na-ma-nilu na-ma-neru na-ma-nelu na-ma-niru na-ma-nilu na-mba-niru meɲiru ai Hawu-Dhao 756 *nesa nRM same, alike same This is almost certainly connected with *esa ‘one’. Spatial relations na-ka-nesak (J:391) na-ka-nesak na-ka-nesak na-ka-nesak na-m|nesa na-nesa {2} na-m|nesa (M:364) hanesa-n (Mo:75) ETimor 757 *nesu *nesu-k PRM mortar mortar *ləsuŋ *l > *n *n > Ø in most Meto (also Helong) Out-comparisons point to pre-RM **ŋəsun, perhaps with metathesis of initial and final consonants. Food and drink, tools nesu-k (J:392) nesu-ʔ nesu-k nesu-k nesu-ʔ nesu-k nesu-k nesu-ʔ nesu-ʔ e͡usu|k esu|k esu|ʔ (M:104) nesu|k isuŋ nesun (Mo:154) knehun (dJ:121) nesug kosun ŋəʧu 758 *neta *na-ma-neta Rote choke choke ; suffocate **ma-ŋeta pre-RM Food and drink na-ma-neta (J:392) na-ma-neta na-ma-neta na-ma-neta na-ma-neta meŋita Hawu-Dhao 759 *nihe *nihe-k Rote ant ant *nipay ‘snake’ *e > a in Ba'a; *e > i in Korbafo and East Rote (sporadic assimilation?) Creatures, bugs neʔe-k (J:386) niʔi-ʔ nii-ʔ nii-ʔ nii-ʔ nii-ʔ niʔa-k niʔe-k niʔe-k nie-ʔ nie-ʔ neʔek nehek (Mo:153) nee 760 *nihis *ma-nihis PRM thin thin *nipis ‘thinness (of materials)’ *i > a in Meto; *h > ʔ /V_V in wRote (expect Ø) Spatial relations niʔis {2} na-ma-niʔi (J:396) niʔi-ʔ nii-ʔ niis niis niʔis niʔis niʔis niʔis niʔis mainihas mainihas (M:xxx) manihis mnihis nihis niʔis mihis (Mo:142) 761 *niit *ka-niit PRM crab crab The Tetun forms point to earlier **ka-nipis, though positing these forms as cognate requires irr. *p > (*h) > Ø in Termanu, Ba'a, Bokai, Korbafo and Tii. Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon nii-k, iʔa nii-k (J:396) nii-ʔ nii-k nii-ʔ nii-ʔ nii-k nii-k niit, nii-ʔ niit k|niit k|niit k|niit (M:223) kniit hniit niʔis nihis, mihis (Mo:154) Helong, ETimor 762 *nimba Rote kind of fish fish, kind *a > e in most Rote Creatures, aquatic creatures, fish, creature taxon nipa (J:398) nipe nipe nipe nipe nimpa nimbe nimbe nimbe nipe Helong 763 *nini *nini-k Rote mosquito mosquito *ñikñik ‘tiny biting insect: gnat, sandfly’ Creatures, bugs, insects, insects with wings, creature taxon nini-k (J:397) nini-k nini-ʔ nini-ʔ nini-ʔ nini-ʔ nini-k nini-k nini-ʔ nini-ʔ knikiʔ nikiʔ, hmiki ninik (Mo:154) nini 764 *nisi *nisi-k PRM tooth, teeth tooth ; teeth *ŋis(ŋ)i(s) ‘grin, show the teeth’ Body, head, mouth nisi-k (J:398) nisi-ʔ nisi-k nisi-ʔ nisi-ʔ nisi-ʔ nisi-ʔ nisi-k nisi-k nisi-ʔ nisi-ʔ nisi-f nisi-f nisi-k (M:372) nisi-f sii kisaa-t 765 *nitas PRM hazel sterculia tree Sterculia foetidea |ui{Sterculia foetidea} Plants, tree, plant taxon nitas (J:399f) nita-ʔ nita-ʔ nita-ʔ nitas nitas nitas nitas nitas (M:374) nitas, ai knitas (Mo:153) ETimor, Flores 766 *nitu PRM spirit spirit ; corpse *qanitu ‘ghost, ancestral spirit; nature spirit; corpse; owl; various plants’ Body, internal organs nitu (J:400) nitu nitu nitu nitu nitu nitu nitu nitu nitu nitu (M:374) 767 *noɗo Rote crawl, creep crawl *roɗok Motion nodo~nodo (J:402) nodo~nodo nodo~nodo nodo~nodo nodo~nodo nodo~nodo noɗo~noɗo nodo~nodo noɗo~noɗo 768 *noe PRM melt melt Sense perception noe (J:402) noe noe noe noe noe noe noe noe na-m|noe na-m|noe, na-t|noe {2} na-noe-b (M:377) noe(m) {2} noe Helong 769 *noh PRM coconut coconut *niuR *i > Ø; *u > *o; *R > *h (also in *klaha and *taha) Ø > a in Meto (also Kemak) The connection between PMP *niuR and PRM *noh involves several irregularities. Firstly, final *h must be reconstructed to account for the Meto reflexes as Meto usually retains *h finally while it is lost in Rote (cf. *ɗilah, *mbuah, *sikəh, *henuh, and *nunuh). PRM *h could plausibly, though irregularly, be derived from *R as the change *R > *h is attested in two other forms (cf. *klaha, *taha). Secondly, the lowering of *u > *o must be accounted for. While lowering of high vowels to mid before *R is sporadically attested in the Rote-Meto languages, it is not attested in other languages of the Timor region included in the out-comparisons which also have irr. *u > o in this form (e.g. Ili'uun iku ‘tail’ < *ikuR, telu < *qatəluR ‘egg’). This indicates that *u > o is an irregular development before the time of PRM. Thirdly, the second vowel a must be accounted for in Meto. This could be an irregular insertion in PMeto in order to create a disyllable, though we would probably expect that the original single vowel would have been doubled, as in the Rote languages and several other languages of the region. (Helong has nian which also has irregular insertion of a, though the retention of *i = i in Helong indicates that it is not directly connected with the Meto form.) Finally, reflexes of PMP *niuR which do not attest irr. *u > o are also found in the greater Timor region. Examples include Tetun nuu, Welaun nuu, Leti nura and Dhao ɲiu. This indicates that the precursor to irregular *noh probably occurred alongside regular reflexes of PMP *niuR in this region. Plants, tree, palm, coconut, plant taxon, fruit noo (J:400) noo noo noo noo noo noo noo noo noo noah noah noah (M:376) noah, noha noo (dJ:130) nor noa, nua 770 *noko Rote shake shake k-5 *o > u in second sense in Korbafo, Bokai, and Bilbaa Motion noko~noko {2} na-ka-no~noko (J:405) {2} na-ka-nu~nuku noko~noko {2} na-ka-nu~nuku {2} na-ka-nu~nuku noko~noko noko~noko {2} na-ka-no~noko noko~noko {2} na-ka-no~noko noko~noko ɲoko, keɲoko Hawu-Dhao 771 *nono₁ PnMeto sorcery sorcery If these forms are indeed related, they probably point to earlier **nodo(h). Social and political relations, religion and belief (M:384) in nodo nodoh Helong 772 *nono₂ PnMeto family group clan Social and political relations nono {2} nono-t nono-t (M:384) Maluku 773 *nori *na-nori PRM teach, learn teach ; learn Cognition na-noli (J:406) na-noli na-noli na-noli na-nori na-noli na-nori na-noli na-nori na-noniʔ na-noniʔ na-noin-aʔ (M:379) hanorin hanourin (Mo:76) nori nori ETimor, SW Maluku, Hawu-Dhao, CTimor 774 *noto *noto~noto PRM slow slow ; sleepy Time noto~noto (J:407) noto~noto noto~noto noto~noto noto~noto noto~noto noto~noto noto~noto not~notoʔ noto~notok ETimor, CTimor 775 *nuɗu *nuɗu-k PwRM outer mouth region lip ; mouth ; beak *ŋusuq ‘nasal area; snout’ *s > *ɗ *n > r/l in most varieties of Meto (except Ro'is Amarasi and optionally Kusa-Manea) Irregular *s > *ɗ may have been through intermediate *z [ʤ]. Irregular *s > *z is also found in Celebic for this form: e.g. Balaesang ŋudu, Dampelas ŋuʤu (Himmelmann 2001:160f). However, while the reflexes in southwest Maluku also have irregularities in this consonant, these cannot be attributed to *z. Instead, they attest irregular *s > *d. Body, head, mouth nuɗu-ʔ nuɗu-ʔ nuru-n ruru-f lulu-f (M:292) nuru-f, ruru-f nuru (dJ:148) nuran {2} nuran wulla {3} nurhe 776 *nuʔa PRM scabies scabies *nuka ‘wound’ *k > *ʔ *a > e /_# in Meto Body, sickness nuʔa (J:408) nuʔa nuʔa nua nuʔa nuʔa nuʔa nuʔa nuʔe nuka (Mo:155) noʔo 777 *numbu *na-numbu Rote grow, germinate, sprout grow ; sprout *tu(m)buq *t > *n (also in Helong and Central Lembata) *tumbu Plants na-nupu (J:409) na-nupu na-nupu na-nupu na-nupu na-numpu na-numbu na-numbu na-numbu nupu 778 *nunuh PRM banyan tree banyan *nunuk Plants, tree, plant taxon nunu-ʔ nunu-ʔ nunu-k nunu_londa-ʔ nunu_londa-ʔ nunah nunuh nunuh (M:393) nunuʔ beas 779 *nuŋa PRM kind of flowering tree Cordia species Cordia species **nuŋan pre-RM Plants, tree, plant taxon kai/nuna-k (J:216) kai/nuna-ʔ kai/nuna-k kai_nuna-ʔ ai_nuna-ʔ ŋɡai/nuna-k nuna-k nuŋɡa-ʔ nuŋɡa-ʔ nuk/baʔi nun/baʔi, nuk/baʔi, kuk/baʔi {2} kuk/baiʔ tasi, nuk/baiʔ tasi {3} nuk/baiʔ {4} nun/baiʔ fui {5} ʔ|nuna fui (M:390f, 245) tatasi_nunaŋ ai nunan (Mo:155) Helong, ETimor 780 *nusa PRM island, state island ; state *nusa Social and political relations nusa-k (J:409) nusa-ʔ nusa-k nusa-ʔ nusa-ʔ nusa-k nusa-k nusa-ʔ nusa-ʔ nusa nusa nusa nusa (Mo:155) 781 *nuu₁ *nuu-k Rote bird’s nest nest Creatures, birds manu_nuu-k (J:408) manu_nuu-ʔ manu_nuu-k manu_nuu-ʔ manu_nuu-ʔ manu_nuu-k manu_nuu-k manu_nuu-ʔ manu_nuu-ʔ hnoo knuuk (Mo:114) Helong, ETimor 782 *nuu₂ CERM property, possession possession *anu ‘unnamed thing’ Possession nuu (J:407) nuu nuu nuu nuu ═nu 783 *nuus Rote squid squid *nuəs Blust and Trussel (ongoing) comment regarding their reconstruction: ‘The search for a PMP term for ‘squid’ is frustrating, since there are many words with this meaning that show greater than chance phonetic similarity, but few that exhibit recurrent sound correspondences, a situation that obtains even within the Oceanic group […]’. *ə > u (sporadic assimilation) Pawley (2011:200) reconstructs POc *nusa and *nus. PCEMP *nus could account for the Timor reflexes with doubling of the vowel to fulfil the disyllabic requirement for content words. Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon (iʔa) nuus (J:408) nuu-ʔ nuu-ʔ nuu-ʔ nuus nuus nuus nuus nuus nuus 784 *ndake₁ PnRote climb, ascend climb *dakih k-7/8/9/10 *d > *nd; *i > *e (influence from *sakay > *sake ‘go up’) Motion ndaʔe (J:412) ndaʔe laʔe na-lake raʔe ndaʔe ndaʔe 785 *ndake₂ Rote betel leaves betel leaves k-8/9ʹ (*k > Ø in Oepao, *k > ʔ, Ø in Rikou; expect only *k > ʔ in both) *nd > d in Termanu, Korbafo, Bokai, Landu, and Ba'a Assimilations of *nd > d in first sense are due to this term being compounded with reflexes of *doo-k ‘leaf’ in Nuclear Rote, compare reflexes of *ndiki ‘ear’ and *ɓife ‘lips’. Plants, edible daʔe_doo-k (J:69) daʔe_doo-ʔ daʔe_doo-k lake_doo-ʔ dake_doo-ʔ raʔi_doo-ʔ, rai_doo-ʔ rii_doo-ʔ daʔe_doo-k ndaʔe_ɗoo-k ndaʔe_ɗoo ndaʔe ndaʔe ndaʔe 786 *ndake_ɓuʔu *ndake_ɓuʔu-k Rote wild basil basil, wild k-6ʹ (*k > ʔ in Ba'a and Tii; expect *k = k, *k > Ø in Rikou; expect *k > ʔ) Plants, edible ndake_buʔu, ndaʔe_buʔu (J:413) ndake_buʔu lake_buʔu leke_buu (rae_buʔu ?) ndaʔe_buʔu ndaʔe_ɓuʔu ndaʔe_buu ndaʔe_ɓuu 787 *ndaki *ka-ndaki PRM kind of aquatic snake or leech snake ; leech k-5 *nd > r in Meto (expect k) Creatures, bugs ndaki (J:413) ndaki laki raʔi ndaki ndaki ndaki ʔ|rake|ʔ (M:257) ra~rake|ʔ 788 *ndaru PRM cut cut *r > l in Rikou (sporadic dissimilation?) Actions ndalu (J:414) ndalu lalu ralu ndalu ndaru ndalu ndaru n-ranu n-kanu {2} (M:180) 789 *ndau Rote needle needle *zaRum *z > *nd (expect *ɗ) This is probably an early loan, though the source language has not been identified. Clothing and grooming nda~ndau-k (J:415) nda~ndau-ʔ la~lau-k la~lau-ʔ ra~rau-ʔ nda~ndau-k nda~ndau-k nda~ndau-t nda~ndau-t lauŋ daun (Mo:23) 790 *ndefa PRM landslide landslide ; cliff Interference/collapse with *fera₂, which is likely related via consonant metathesis. A possible etymon for *ndefa is PWMP *rəbaq [ɾəbaq] ‘collapse, fall down, as a house’ with doublets *rəbas and *Rəbaq (Blust and Trussel ongoing). *fera₂ Physical world ndefa {2} na-ndefa (J:416f) ndefa lefa lefa ndefa refa ndefa ndefa ndefa ndefa {3} nde~ndefa-ʔ ndefa-ʔ refe|k {2} n-refa kefa|n (M:192) 791 *ndelat PRM lightning lightning ; gun Final *t finds external support from Ili'uun. The final t in Meto may have been reanalysed as a nominalising suffix. This could be connected with PWMP *kidəlat ‘lightning’ (Blust and Trussel ongoing) with irr. *d > *nd. However, the only evidence given for PWMP *kidəlat ‘lightning’ is Tagalog kidlát and Malay kilat. The Malay form is also given as evidence for PMP *kilat ‘lightning’ (from PAN *likaC) which is much better supported than putative *kidəlat. The semantic shift from ‘lightning’ to ‘gun’ which is required for some of the forms given here is reasonable and still attested by some of the forms in Meto. The Tetun and Mambae forms could be borrowings from Meto after *nd > *r > k and before *l > n, borrowings from Malay kilat ‘lightning’, and/or inheritances of PMP *kilat ‘lightning’. It has been proposed that the Atoni expansion was driven by their early acquisition of guns and maize (Fox 1988), thus Meto being the ultimate donor language is reasonable. Physical world, weather ndela-s {2} na-ndela (J:417) ndela-ʔ lela-k lela-ʔ ndela-s rela-s na-rela ndela-s ndela-s ndela-s ndela-s renet {2} °makenet kenat {2} ma-kenat {3} na-kena kenat {2} ma-kenat {3} keen neno (M:198) kenat °lelat °kilat °kilat (Mo:107) ʤilat (dJ:114) noho ʈil~ʈila {2} °ilak Wetar 792 *ndeli *ka-ndeli PRM ring ring *nd > r/l in Nuclear Meto (expect k, indicates PMeto *ka-deli) Clothing and grooming ndeli {2} na-ka-ndeli (J:417) nde~ndeli ndeli le~leli le~leli nde~ndeli re~reli re~reli ndeli ndeli ndeli ndeli k|reni k|reni ka|leli (M:174) kadeli (Mo:93) ʈeli kadeli ETimor, SW Maluku, Hawu-Dhao 793 *ndesi PRM nettle nettle Plants ndesi (J:418) ndesi lesi lesi resi ndesi ndesi ndesi ndesi {2} (M:201) 794 *ndia PnRote third person pronoun, demonstrative pronoun 3SG ; he ; she ; it ; this ; that *si-ia ‘3sg. personal pronoun: he, she, it’ *s > *nd (but compare Malay dia ‘he, she, it’ with irr. *s > d) People, pronouns ndia (J:419) ndia lia lia ndia ria ria ndia ndia ndia 795 *ndika PwRM stick to, cling stick to ; cling k-7 *a > i in some Meto (also Tetun); *nd > r in Kusa-Manea (expect k) Actions ndika na-kiʔi n-kiiʔ {2} (M:205) maʔriaʔ ha-kriʔit kriʔik (Mo:119) ETimor 796 *ndiki *ndiki-k Rote ear ear k-7 Assimilations of *nd > d in first sense are due to this term being compounded with reflexes of *doo-k ‘leaf’, compare *ndake_doo-k > daʔe_doo-k ‘betel’ and *ɓife > difa_doo-k ‘lips’. Body, head ndiʔi-k {2} diʔi_doo-k (J:419, J:87) ndiʔi-ʔ {2} diʔi_doo-ʔ liʔi-k {2} diʔi_doo-k liki-ʔ {2} liki doo-ʔ {2} ndiki_doo-ʔ riʔi-ʔ {2} rii_doo-ʔ {2} rii_doo-ʔ ndiʔi-k {2} diʔi_doo-k {2} ndiʔi ɗoo-k ndiʔi-k {2} ndiʔi ɗoo-k ndiki-ʔ {2} ndiʔi-ʔ ndiki-ʔ {2} ndiki-ʔ, ndiki roo-ʔ ndiki-ʔ 797 *ndoo PRM straight, straighten straight Spatial relations ndoo-s {2} na-ka-ndoo {3} na-ma-ndoo (J:420f) ndoo-ʔ loo-k loo-ʔ roo-s ndoo-s ndoo-s ndoo-s ndoo-s na-ndoo na-koo na-koo (M:225) loos (Mo:133) ETimor 798 *ndoro PRM walk around walk around *nd > r in Oenale; *nd > n in Meto (probably via intermediate *r, given Dela-Oenale intermediate rolo) Motion ndolo (J:423) ndolo lolo lolo rolo roro ndolo ndoro ndolo rolo rolo n-non~nono nono (M:384) loloh lodo ŋaro {2} rero Helong, Flores, Bima, Hawu-Dhao 799 *ndoto PRM hyacinth bean Lablab purpureus bean, hyacinth *nd > k in Ro'is Amarasi (expect r) Plants, edible plants, vegetables, legumes ndoto (J:424, Fox 1991:260) ndoto loto loto ndoto roto(s) rotos ndoto ndoto ndoto ndoto koot kase kotoʔ (M:238) koto kotu-gw °koto (Mo:117) °koto 800 *ndou *ka-ndou-k PRM nape of the neck neck, nape *nd develops as an initial consonant in Rote. Body, head ka|ndou-k (J:221) ka|ndou-ʔ ka|lou-k ka|lou-ʔ ka|ndou-ʔ ka|rou-ʔ ka|rou-ʔ ka|ndou-k ka|ndou-k, ndo~ndou-k ka|ndou-ʔ ndo(u)~ndou-ʔ k|roo-n ko/tore-f ʔ|koo-n {2} ʔ|ko/tole-k (M:225) ʔ|koo-n ʔ|koo-f 801 *ndui PRM draw/scoop water scoop ; draw water Physical world, water ndui (J:426) ndui lui lui rui ndui ndui ndui ndui n-rui n-kui {2} ʔ-kuʔi n-kui oe {2} (M:245) n-kui 802 *nduna *ka-nduna-k PRM nest nest *a > u in nRote (sporadic assimilation); *nd > k in Ro'is Amarasi (expect r) Creatures ndunu-k (J:427) ndunu-ʔ lunu-k lunu-ʔ ndunu-ʔ runu-ʔ runu-ʔ ndunu-k ndunu-k nduna-ʔ nduna-ʔ kuna|ʔ ʔ|kuna|ʔ ʔ|kuna|ʔ (M:249) 803 *ŋano PwRM plait, braid plait ; braid *ŋ > h in wRote It is not clear what initial consonant can account for wRote h, (most) Meto k, and Amanuban n. I have reconstructed *ŋ as this best accounts for the Meto reflexes. Actions hano hano na-kano na-kano, n-kane na-kano (M:180) na-kaon na-nano 804 *ŋaper PRM beckon with hand beckon *ŋ > k in Ba'a (probably expect ŋɡ) Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PWMP *ambay ‘wave back and forth’, PMP *kaway ‘wave the hand or arms; call by waving’, and PMP *kapay ‘flutter the wings’. Wolff (2010:838) reconstructs PMP *abay stating: ‘In S[outh] Phil[ippines] and N[orth] Sul[awesi] this form was prefixed with *ka-.’. Speech and language ŋɡape-k (J:433) ŋɡape-ʔ ŋape-k ŋape-ʔ kape-ʔ kape-k ŋɡape-k kapel kaper kaper n-napen n-napi, n-nape (M:35) kahi (Mo:95) gape ETimor, Hawu-Dhao 805 *ŋato PRM string together, sew together sew Clothing and grooming nato (J:381) nato nato nato nato nato nato nato nato n-katon n-kato {2} (M:186) noto Helong 806 *ŋilu PRM tamarind, sour tamarind ; sour *ŋilu ‘painful sensation in teeth, as from eating something sour’ *ŋ = *ŋ *l > Ø in all Meto except Kusa-Manea in Meto forms meaning ‘tamarind’ Plants, edible ni~nilu_naʔu {2} ni~nilu_dae_loo-k {3} ni~nilu_tasi (J:396f) ni~nilu ni~nilu ni~nilu ni~nilu ni~nilu ni~nilu ni~nilu ni~nilu ni~nilu niu kiu {2} maiʔninuʔ kiu {2} kiu ma-tabi-ʔ {3} (M:199) ka~kinu ŋiduʔ, ŋiluʔ ŋilu 807 *ŋinu PMeto spit out spit out *qizuR ‘saliva, spittle’ PWMP *z > (*d) > *n (expect *z > *ɗ > *d) The source of initial pa in Kusa-Manea is unclear. It may be due to historic compounding. PMeto *ŋinu is cognate with Rote *midu and both are ultimately probably connected with *qizuR, but it is not possible to straightforwardly reconcile the initial *m = *ŋ correspondence and combine them into one set attesting a single PRM reconstruction. *midu spit Body, emission na-ninu na-kinu na-kinu, na-kinu-t (M:210) pakiun na-kinu taniru (Mo:180) anilu 808 *ŋoli *ŋoli-k PRM canine tooth, tusk canine tooth ; tusk ; copulate **ŋəli pre-RM Body, head, mouth noli(-k) (J:405) noli-ʔ noli-k noli-(ʔ) noli-(ʔ) noli-k noli-k noli-ʔ noli-ʔ niis koni-f {2} n-koni koni-f {2} n-koni {3} ma-koni-ʔ (M:235) koni-f ŋilin neli əli (On:513) Helong, ETimor, Hawu-Dhao, Sumba, Maluku 809 *ŋura PRM young of plants young ; unripe ; forest *ŋuda *ŋ = *ŋ *a > e /_# in wRM except for Kusa-Manea The Meto reflexes are probably best explained by positing that *ŋ was retained as *ŋ into PMeto. PMeto *ŋune then underwent consonant metathesis to **nuŋe followed by subsequent regular PMeto *ŋ > k. The full hypothesised pathway is thus PMP *ŋuda > PRM *ŋura > PwRM *ŋure > **ŋule > PMeto *ŋune > **nuŋe > nuke. The Meto forms with two k’s probably attest sporadic assimilation of *n > *ŋ /_Vŋ before *ŋ > k. Thus, **nuŋe > **ŋuŋe. (Compare *nuŋa ‘Cordia species’ for similar assimilation.) The Rote forms show regular PRM *ŋ > n. Time nula-k {2} nula (J:408f) nula-ʔ {2} nula nula-k {2} nula nula-ʔ {2} nula {2} nura nura-ʔ {2} nura {2} nura nula-k {2} nula nura-k {2} nura nule-ʔ nure-ʔ mai|nuki|ʔ mai|nuke|ʔ, mai|nuki|ʔ {2} m|nuki|ʔ mai|kuke|ʔ, ma|kuke|ʔ (M:301,xlvi) noa ma|kuka|ʔ nurak (Mo:155) 810 *ŋɡadas PRM palate, gills, throat palate ; gills ; throat *ŋadas ‘palate’ Osmond (2011a:130) reconstruct POc *gara ‘gills’ which could be cognate, instead of PMP *ŋadas. POc *gara would be from PMP **(g,k)a(d,r)a. d-2 *d = *d *ŋ > *ŋɡ *a > e /_# in Meto *nada Body, head, mouth ŋɡala_bote-k (J:430) ŋɡa~ŋɡalas ŋɡara-ʔ {2} ŋɡara_ɓote-ʔ ŋɡara-ʔ ʔ|ka͡ere-f ʔ|kare-f ʔ|kale-n (M:13,174) ʔ|kael uti-n hegara 811 *ŋɡae PwRM cry, weep cry ; weep Emotions and values ŋɡae ŋɡae n-kae n-kae n-kae (M:167) n-kaa 812 *ŋɡaem PRM country almond Terminalia catappa |ui{Terminalia catappa} Plants, tree, plant taxon ŋɡae-k (J:429) ŋɡae-ʔ ŋae-k ŋae-ʔ kae-ʔ ŋɡae-k ŋɡae-k ŋɡae-ʔ ŋɡae-ʔ kaem (M:167) kaen kaen (Mo:94) ETimor 813 *ŋɡafat PRM light (not heavy) light (adj.) ; fast ; quick *ŋɡ > k ~ n in Meto (indicates PMeto *maʔŋafaʔ with irr. *ŋɡ > *ŋ where we expect *k) Sense perception ŋɡafa-k (J:429) ŋɡafa-ʔ ŋafa-k ŋafa-ʔ {2} ŋafa-ʔ kafa-ʔ {2} kafa-ʔ ŋɡafa-k ŋɡafa-k ŋɡafa-ʔ {2} ŋɡafa-ʔ ŋɡafa-ʔ {2} ŋɡafat {2} ŋɡafat maʔ|kafa|ʔ maʔ|kafa|ʔ {2} , (M:299) kahan Helong, Maluku 814 *ŋɡafur PRM powder powder Physical world ŋɡafu {2} ŋɡafu~ŋɡafu (J:430) ŋɡafu ŋafu ŋafu kafu ŋɡafu ŋɡafu ŋɡafu ŋɡa~ŋɡafur ŋɡafur kafuʔ kafuʔ (M:168) 815 *ŋɡaha PwRM no, not not ; no regular *h > Ø /a_a in Rote Cognition ŋɡa ka= ka=, kahaf, kaah ka= (M:264) 816 *ŋɡai PRM pick at, scratch scratch ; pick at Actions ŋɡai (J:431) ŋɡai ŋai ŋai kai ŋɡai ŋɡai ŋɡai ŋɡai n-kai n-kai (M:168) 817 *ŋɡala *ŋɡa~ŋɡala PRM agati, vegetable hummingbird Sesbania grandiflora |ui{Sesbania grandiflora} *a > e /_# in Dela, Dengka and Meto Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct Proto-Philippine *gala ‘the almasiga tree: |ui{Agathis celebica}’ on the basis of Ilokano gala and Tagalog gala-gala. They note that the Ilokano form may be a Tagalog loan. Plants, tree, plant taxon ŋɡa~ŋɡala (J:430) ŋɡa~ŋɡala ŋa~ŋala ŋa~ŋala ka~kala ŋɡa~ŋɡala ŋɡa~ŋɡala ŋɡa~ŋɡale ŋɡa~ŋɡala ŋɡa~ŋɡale ʔ|kane ʔ|kane (M:14,179) ʔ|kane kala (Mo:98) ETimor 818 *ŋɡaŋɡo PRM water spinach Ipomoea aquatica water spinach *ŋɡ > Ø /#_ in Korbafo Ultimately a borrowing from another source, e.g. compare similar Malay kangkung. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) say regarding the Malay form: ‘Although a precise donor language is difficult to identify, a Chinese source appears likely.’. Plants, edible plants, vegetables ŋɡaŋo_dano (J:432) aŋo_dano ŋaŋo_dano ŋaŋo_dano kako_dano ŋɡaŋɡo_dano ŋɡaŋɡo_ɗano ŋɡaŋɡo-ʔ ŋɡaŋɡo-ʔ ŋɡaŋɡo uut kako hkako {2} hkako klehen Helong 819 *ŋɡarasa *ŋɡarasa-k Rote part of the back back Body, torso karasa-ʔ ŋɡarasa-ʔ keraha (On:183) Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 820 *ŋɡari PRM sow, scatter sow ; scatter Plants, agriculture ŋɡali (J:431) ŋɡali ŋali ŋali kari ŋɡali ŋɡari ŋɡali ŋɡari n-kaniʔ {2} kan~kaniʔ, sab/kaniʔ kani-n kari (Mo:101) ari ETimor, SW Maluku 821 *ŋɡasi Rote shout, speak shout ; speak Speech and language ŋɡasi (J:433) ŋɡasi ŋasi ŋasi kasi ŋɡasi ŋɡasi ŋɡasi ŋɡasi ŋɡasi kais ŋɡahi SW Maluku, Flores, Bima, CTimor 822 *ŋɡeɓo CERM cut into pieces cut *o > i in Meto Final *o has been tentatively reconstructed as *o > i in Meto can be motivated as an instance of sporadic assimilation to the previous vowel while alternate *i > o in nRote appears unmotivated. Actions ŋɡe~ŋɡebo (J:436) ŋɡe~ŋɡebo ŋe~ŋebo ke~kebo ŋɡe~ŋɡebo kebiʔ kebiʔ (M:192) 823 *ŋɡeɗe Rote frog, croaking of a frog frog ; croak *e > a in Molo; *ɗ > l in Termanu; *ŋɡ > k in Bokai and Dengka With the exception of Termanu, the second forms in this entry follow the entry for Korbafo. Semau Helong has klete which is not regularly cognate, but is phonetically similar. Funai Helong has klatkeeʔ. likely onomatopoeia Creatures, bugs, creature taxon ŋɡede {2} lodo_ŋɡele-k (J:436, 320) ŋɡede {2} ŋɡede oe kede~kede ŋede {2} ŋede oe, ŋed/oe kede ŋɡede {2} ŋɡe~ŋɡede, ŋɡe~ŋɡede oe {2} ŋɡe~ŋɡeɗe ŋɡeɗe {2} ŋɡe~ŋɡeɗe keɗe~keɗe {2} ŋɡe~ŋɡeɗe ŋɡeɗe {2} ŋɡeɗe {2} ŋɡeɗe kala/beʔo (M:59) kere CTimor 824 *ŋɡela₁ *ŋɡela-k Rote earwax earwax *taŋila ‘ear’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) the doublet taliŋa with consonant metathesis. *taliŋa is the most common form outside of Taiwan. Nonetheless, Helong attests *taŋila, lending credibility to the notion that the Rote forms here are irregularly connected to *taŋila. *i > *e *ŋ > *ŋɡ Body, emission diʔi_doo ŋɡela-k (J:437) ŋɡela-ʔ ŋela-k ŋela-ʔ kela-ʔ ŋɡela-k ŋɡela-k ŋɡela-ʔ ŋɡela-ʔ kŋila hŋila liga-r lika-t 825 *ŋɡela₂ *ŋɡela-k Rote eucalyptus, gum tree eucalyptus ; gum tree Plants, tree, plant taxon ŋɡela-k (J:437) ŋɡela-ʔ ŋela-k ŋela-ʔ kela-ʔ ŋɡela-k ŋɡela-k ŋɡela-k ŋɡela-ʔ ŋɡela-ʔ kelaŋ Helong 826 *ŋɡeŋɡo *na-ŋɡeŋɡo PRM shake shake *gərgər ‘shake, shiver, tremble’ *ə > *o *o > o ~ u in Meto Irregular final *ə > o is also seen in Bugis gegoʔ (Mathes 1874:53) and Makassar geŋgo (Cense 1859:68). Motion na-ŋɡeŋo (J:438) na-ŋɡeŋo na-ŋeŋo na-ŋeŋo na-keko na-ŋɡeŋɡo na-ŋɡeŋɡo na-ŋɡeŋɡo na-ŋɡeŋɡo , {2} (M:194) 827 *ŋɡeo *ŋɡeo-k Rote black black Sense perception ŋɡeo-k (J:438) ŋɡeo-ʔ ŋeo-k ŋeo-ʔ keo=a keo-ʔ keo-ʔ ŋɡeo-k ŋɡeo-k ŋɡeo-ʔ ŋɡeo-ʔ 828 *ŋɡete PRM pinch, nip pinch ; bite off *gətəl Reconstructed with the doublets *getil and *ketil. *ə > *e /_# (expect *ə > a in wRote, possibly *ə > *a > e) *t > ʔ /V_V in Termanu, Korbafo, Ba'a, and Tii *katə Sense perception ŋɡeʔe (J:436) ŋɡeʔe ŋete ŋete ŋɡeʔe ŋɡeʔe ŋɡete ŋɡete kete, ete (M:202) 829 *ŋɡeu PRM shave shave ; scrape *ŋɡ > ŋɡ ~ k in Dela-Oenale Actions ŋɡeu (J:440) ŋɡeu ŋeu ŋeu keu ŋɡeu ŋɡeu ŋɡeu ʔeu ŋɡeu, ʔeu n-keu n-keu n-keu (M:203) keu 830 *ŋɡia PRM parakeet parakeet Ø > t /V_V in Meto onomatopoeia Creatures, birds, creature taxon ŋɡia (J:441) ŋɡia ŋia ŋia kia ŋɡia ŋɡia ŋɡia ŋɡia kita (M:211) Maluku 831 *ŋɡii *ŋɡii-k PRM bunch of fruit bunch, fruit Jonker (1908:440) gives Tetun Dili kiu which may be cognate, but the final u of which would be irregular. Plants, edible plants, fruit ŋɡii-k (J:440) ŋɡii-ʔ ŋii-k ŋii-ʔ kii-ʔ ŋɡii-k ŋɡii-ʔ ŋɡii-ʔ (M:205) (On:353) Sumba 832 *ŋɡirat Rote kind of shrub shrub vague semantics Plants ŋɡila-k (J:441) ŋɡila-ʔ ŋila-k ŋila-ʔ kira-ʔ ŋɡila-k ŋɡira-k ŋɡilat ŋɡirat 833 *ŋɡiro *ŋɡi~ŋɡiro CERM lower head area head, lower Osmond and Ross (2016a:112) reconstruct POc *k(i,e)ju ‘back of head, base of skull, occiput, nape’ and Proto New Guinea Oceanic *g(i,e)ju which are phonetically and formally similarto the PRM form. However, the final vowel correspondences are irregular and the initial PRM *ŋɡ = POc *k correspondence may also be irregular. Something like PCEMP **gijo may indeed be possible, however in the absence of cognates in other areas of Wallacea, I prefer not to make such a reconstruction at this point. spit Body, limbs, arms (lesu_haʔik) ŋɡi~ŋɡilo=na (J:441) ŋɡi~ŋɡilo=na ŋi~ŋilo=na ki~kiro=na ŋɡi~ŋɡilo=na ki͡unu-f ʔ|kinu-f kino-f {2} ʔ|kinu-f {3} (M:210) kino-n 834 *ŋɡoa *ŋɡoa-k Rote stupid stupid ; dumb ; mute Cognition ŋɡoa-k (J:443) ŋɡoa-ʔ ŋoa-k ŋoa-ʔ koa-ʔ ŋɡoa-k ŋɡoa-k ŋɡoa-ʔ ŋɡoa-ʔ goa goa Hawu-Dhao 835 *ŋɡois PRM eel eel Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon ŋɡois (J:445) ŋɡoi-ʔ ŋoi-k ŋoi-ʔ kois ŋɡois ŋɡois ŋɡois ŋɡois kois kois (Mo:101) ETimor 836 *ŋɡoʔu CERM big, great big ; great Spatial relations leŋou ri/kou, rai/kou koʔu koʔu 837 *ŋɡola Rote monitor lizard, flying lizard lizard, flying ; lizard, monitor Creatures, bugs, creature taxon ŋɡola (J:445f) ŋɡola ŋola {2} ŋala/fao ŋala/fao kara/fao ŋɡola ŋɡola laɠura (On:236) Flores, Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 838 *ŋɡomi *ŋɡomi~ŋɡomi PnRote beard beard ; goatee *gumi(s) ‘moustache, beard’ Reconstructed with the doublet *kumis. *u > *o Body, head, hair ŋɡomi~ŋɡomi (J:447) ŋomi~ŋomi komi~komi ŋɡomi~ŋɡomi 839 *ŋɡoro PRM snout, nose, snore snout ; beard ; snore ; bark (v.) *ŋodok PCEMP (own reconstruction) *ŋ > *ŋɡ *ŋɡoro₂ snore Body, head, mouth ŋɡo~ŋɡolo-k {2} ŋɡolo_mei-k {3} ŋɡolo~ŋɡolo {4} na-sa-ŋɡolo (J:445f) ŋɡo~ŋɡolo-ʔ {2} ŋɡolo_mei-ʔ {3} ŋɡolo~ŋɡolo ŋo~ŋolo-k {2} ŋolo_mei-k {3} ŋolo~ŋolo {2} ŋolo_mii-ʔ {3} ŋolo~ŋolo {2} (koro ?) {3} koro~koro ŋɡo~ŋɡolo-k {2} ŋɡolo_mei-k {3} ŋɡolo~ŋɡolo (ŋɡo)ŋɡoro-k {2} ŋɡoro_mei-k {3} ŋɡoro~ŋɡoro ŋɡo~ŋɡolo-ʔ {2} ŋɡolo_mei-ʔ {3} ŋɡolo~ŋɡolo {3} ŋɡoro~ŋɡoro {4} na-sa-ŋɡoro kono-f {2} na-kono kono-f {2} na-kono {2} na-kono {3} (M:235) koon kour kagoro 840 *ŋɡoti *ŋɡoti-k PRM back back Body, torso ŋɡoti_haʔi-k (J:448) ŋoti_haʔi-k ŋoti-ʔ koti_ai-ʔ ŋɡoti_haʔi-k ŋɡoti_aʔi-k, ŋɡoti-k ŋɡoti-ʔ ŋɡoti-ʔ ko͡iti-f koti-f koti-f {2} n-baikoti (M:174) kotuk kotuk (Mo:117) kodo ETimor, Hawu-Dhao 841 *ŋɡout PRM thorn thorn Ro'is and Kotos Amarasi have kaut ‘papaya’ which would be an almost perfect formal match for the first Rote forms, but the semantic connection is too far-fetched. Plants, plant parts ŋɡau-k {2} ŋɡou-k (J:434, 448) ŋɡau-ʔ {2} ŋɡou-ʔ ŋau-k {2} ŋou-k ŋau {2} ŋou-ʔ kou=na kau-ʔ {2} kou-ʔ ŋɡau-k {2} ŋɡou-k ŋɡau-k {2} ŋɡou-k ŋɡaut {2} ŋɡou-ʔ ŋɡaut {2} ŋɡou-ʔ ŋɡaut {2} ma-ŋɡou-ʔ (M:181) ai koon kau Hawu-Dhao, CTimor 842 *ŋɡua Rote freshwater turtle turtle The comparison between this form and Malay kura-kura ‘tortoise’ is striking, though the initial consonants cannot be regularly reconciled. We could posit PMP *kuRa with irr. *k > *ŋɡ. Dempwolff (1938:83) reconstructs *ku[ḷ]aʿ (*ku(r)aq in Blust’s transcription) ‘milt, tortoise’ giving Toba-Batak, Javanese, and Malay cognates as evidence. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) attribute these forms (and others) to being loans from Malay, noting that their explanation assumes that borrowing into Lampung and Sundanese (each with kuya) took place before *R > y. The gloss in Sundanese is ‘freshwater turtle’, thus matching the Rote glosses here. Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon ŋɡua_dano, ŋɡua_oe (J:449) ŋɡua_dano ŋua_dano ŋua_dano kua_dano ŋɡua_dano ŋɡua_ɗano ŋɡua_ɗano ŋɡua_ɗano 843 *ŋɡumu nRM make a fist fist ; squeeze ; press *gəmgəm ‘fist; hold in the fist’ *ə > *u (sporadic assimilation to previous velar consonant and following labial consonant) *kame, *keʔe, *keme, *kumu₂ Body, limbs, arms na-fa-ŋɡumu (J:449) na-fa-ŋumu na-fa-ŋumu na-la-kumu na-fa-ŋɡumu na-fa-ŋɡumu, na-sa-ŋɡumu n-kumu n-kumu (M:248) kuum 844 *ŋɡuru PRM drone, growl, make a steady constant noise drone ; growl *guru(q) ‘noise, tumult’ Both *guru and *guru(q) are reconstructed as ‘disjuncts’ without any difference in semantics. onomatopoeia Sense perception ŋɡulu~ŋɡulu {2} na-sa-ŋɡu~ŋɡulu {3} na-ŋɡulu (J:449) ŋɡulu~ŋɡulu ŋulu~ŋulu {3} na-ŋulu ŋulu~ŋulu kuru~kuru ŋɡulu~ŋɡulu {3} na-ŋɡulu ŋɡuru~ŋɡuru {2} na-sa-ŋɡu~ŋɡuru ŋɡulu~ŋɡulu ŋɡuru~ŋɡuru {2} na-sa-ŋɡu~ŋɡuru na-kunut na-kunut (M:251) 845 *ŋɡuu CERM make a constant monotonous sound, howl (of wind), blow, drone howl ; drone onomatopoeia *kuu Speech and language na-ŋɡuu (J:448) na-ŋɡuu na-ŋuu na-ŋuu ku/truu ku/truʔu {2} ku/tluu {3} ku/tlui (M:242) 846 *oe PRM water water *wahiR *i > *e /_*R# Physical world, water oe (J:452) oe oe oe oe oe oe oe oe oe {2} oe-ʔ oe oe oe (M:398) oa ui wee, ue uee {2} bee (Mo:192;12) eer (dJ:114) oir bea 847 *-oha *-oha-s PnRote cloud cloud Medial *h is perhaps from earlier *p, e.g. **kopa. The Tii and Landu forms with initial s and si respectively indicate some kind of historic compound. The initial k/ʔ in the other Rote forms may be from the nominal prefix *ka-. Reconstruction of a stem -oha which was combined with an initial element is supported by Tetun which appears to attest something like kal + ohan. This reconstruction is perhaps connected with PMP *awaŋ ‘atmosphere, space between earth and sky’ through a pathway *awan > **owan > -oha, as suggested by Jonker (1912:35). However, this requires otherwise unattested *w > *h, as well as initial *#aw > *o. The regular outcome of *awaŋ would be **ao(n). Physical world, sky koʔas (J:242) koʔa koʔa koa sioa-ʔ ʔoa-ʔ koʔas koʔas so~soʔa-k kaloʔan kalohan (Mo:99) ETimor, Flores 848 *ohi *n-ohi nRM almost almost ; nearly Ø > h /#_Vʔ in Korbafo The initial n in most Rote forms is probably a historic third person prefix but has become fossilised in most varieties. Spatial relations noʔi (J:403) hoʔi noʔi noi ʔ-oi, n-oi noʔi n-oi n-oi (M:400) 849 *oka₁ *oka-k CERM pen, corral pen ; corral k-6/9 consonant metathesis *kVf > *ʔVf > fVʔ in Ro'is House oka-ʔ oka-ʔ oʔo|f, ofaʔ oʔo|f oʔa|f, oʔo|f (M:397,406) oʔa|f okat oka (On:383) Helong, Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 850 *oka₂ *oka-k Rote root root *wakaR k-5 #baʔat Plants, plant parts oka-k {2} na-oka (J:455) oka-ʔ oka-k oka-ʔ oka=na oka-ʔ oka-k oka-k (ʔ)oka-ʔ ʔoka-ʔ ʔoka-ʔ {2} na-ʔoka akar (dJ:112) 851 *oken *n-oken PRM call someone to come here call ; beckon k-6 Speech and language n-oke (J:404) n-oke n-oke n-oke n-oʔe n-oʔe n-oʔe n-oʔen n-oʔen (M:399) noken Helong 852 *ombu PRM female animal female animal Creatures, domesticated animals upu-k (J:670) opu-ʔ upu-k opu-ʔ opu-ʔ ompu-k ombu-k ombu-ʔ ombu-ʔ opu {2} (M:407) 853 *oo₁ *n-oo PRM with with **oRo pre-RM Ø > k in Meto Spatial relations n-oo (J:400) n-oo n-oo n-oo n-oo n-oo n-oo n-oo n-oo n-oo n-ook n-ok, n-oka n-ok (M:400) nol ho (Mo:86) n-oro, n-or Helong, ETimor, SW Maluku 854 *oo₂ PRM bamboo (generic) bamboo *qauR ‘type of large bamboo’ Ø > ʔ /#_ in Dela-Oenale Plants, useful plants, bamboo oo (J:450) oo oo oo oo oo oo oo (ʔ)oo ʔoo ʔoo oo oo oo (M:397) oo oo benaʔ au (Mo:5) our oa 855 *osa PnMeto price, value price ; value *sosa buy, sell Possession osa-f {2} ma-ʔosa-ʔ osa (M:407) osa osan osan (Mo:156) osa (dJ:131) osa Helong, ETimor, Wetar, CTimor 856 *osi Rote garden in a village garden **wasi pre-RM Plants, edible plants, crops osi (J:458) osi osi osi osi osi osi osi asi CTimor, Maluku 857 *otas PRM kind of insect which eats thatch/string insect, kind *o > e in Meto Creatures, bugs, insects otas (J:459) ota-k ota-ʔ otas otas otas otas otas otas etas 858 *paɗo Rote octopus octopus Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon pado (J:462) pado pado pado pado mpado paɗo paɗo paɗo paɗo kepaʄo kapaʄu Hawu-Dhao 859 *paha PnMeto split, divide split ; divide *bakaq *k > *h *b > *mb > *p (Tetun has regular *mb > b, thus attesting pre-Meto *mb) *faka₁, *faka₂, *fekə Actions n-paha n-paha (M:411) baka 860 *pande Rote short in height, squat and compact in build, of a person short *pandak *a > *e *p = *p *mbada Spatial relations pane~pane (J:467) pane~pane pane~pane pane~pane pane~pane pande~pande pande~pande pande~pande 861 *papa CERM guard, protect guard ; protect *p > f in Meto Alternately, we could reconstruct *mbafa with medial *f and posit irregular fortition of *f > p in Rote. Social and political relations papa (J:468) papa n-pafaʔ (M:410) papa_piara Helong 862 *paru PRM grate grate *parud ‘rasp, file’ *p = *p Food and drink palu {2} pa~palu-k (J:466) palu palu palu paru palu paru palu paru panu|ʔ ʔ|panu|ʔ (M:421) ʔ|panu|ʔ 863 *peni *ka-peni-k PRM underlay, saddle saddle ; base Clothing and grooming peni-k (J:480) peni-ʔ peni-k peni-ʔ peni-ʔ peni-k peni-ʔ peni-ʔ ʔ|peni|ʔ (M:432) beni peni ETimor, Hawu-Dhao 864 *petun PnMeto Rough Bamboo; Giant Bamboo Dendrocalamus species bamboo, giant Dendrocalamus *bətuŋ ‘bamboo of very large diameter, probably Dendrocalamus species’ *b > *mb > *p Initial *p in PMeto is from earlier *mb. Irregular *b > *mb is attested in many languages of the region for reflexes of *bətuŋ and *mb can be reconstructed to proto-Timor-Babar, perhaps even to a higher node. Plants, useful plants, bamboo, plant taxon petu, petun (M:436) petu petun petu betun (Mo:14) petuŋ (dJ:133) 865 *pio PnMeto garlic garlic **mbio pre-Meto This form may have been distributed by contact, though this would have been early as the reflexes of *mb are regular. Plants, edible plants, vegetables kar/peo peo (M:434) pio ETimor 866 *piru PRM sling sling *r > Ø ~ n in Meto; *p > b ~ f in Meto Warfare and hunting pilu {2} pi~pilu-k (J:485) pi~pilu-ʔ pi~piru-ʔ mpi~mpilu-ʔ pi~piʔu-k pi~pilut pi~pirut ʔ|fiʔu biut, fiku, finu (M:72,119,120) tali (fa~)firun, fa~firuk (Mo:30, 34) ETimor 867 *poka PRM swollen, paunch swell ; fat k-10ʹ (*k > ʔ, k in Termanu and Oenale; expect only *k > ʔ) *a > o in first Rote forms Body tei_poʔo-k {2} po~poka-k (J:495, 492) tei_poʔo-ʔ tei_poʔo-k tei_poko-ʔ tei_poko-ʔ tei_mpoʔo-k tei_poʔo-k tei_poko-ʔ {2} po~poʔat n-pook n-poka n-pook {2} fafi a-poka-t {3} (M:445) 868 *poke Rote blind blind k-5 Body, sickness poke {2} poke-k {3} poʔe (J:492, 490) poke poke poke poke mpoke poke poke poke (On:418) Sumba, Wetar 869 *poko CER plop plop k-5/6 onomatopoeia Speech and language poko~poko (J:492) kepoʔo Hawu-Dhao 870 *ponia PwRM sacrifice sacrifice *p > f in Meto Social and political relations, religion and belief ponia fnia-t (M:123) 871 *pupu PRM blowpipe blow through a blow pipe blow ; blowgun *putput ‘puff, blow, expel air rapidly, as in using a blowgun’ *p = *p; *p = *p *p > f in most nRote /#_ Warfare and hunting fupu (J:149) fupu fupu fupu fupu fumpu pupu pupu pupu puput (M:457) pupu 872 *raho nRM three-stone hearth, fireplace hearth *dapuR ‘hearth’ *d > *r /#_ (expect *d) *u > *o /_*R# House laʔo (J:279) laʔo laʔo lao rao laʔo raʔo auf_nao nao avu rao rao 873 *raʔi Rote tie bind ; tie *Rakit ‘lay long objects side by side; raft’ *R = *r (expect Ø); *k > *ʔ Actions laʔi (J:271) laʔi laʔi lai rai laʔi raʔi lai rai °lai 874 *raʔu PRM scoop up in cupped hands scoop *rakup *k > *ʔ Helong attests pre-RM initial *d. Food and drink laʔu (J:285) laʔu laʔu lau rau laʔu raʔu lau rau n-nau daku 875 *rates PRM grave grave *e > a in Ro'is Amarasi Body lates (J:283) late-ʔ late-ʔ late-ʔ lates rates lates rates niut nata nate naten (M:353) nate rate(n) (Mo:159) rata, rate dare {2} rai dare (On:438) rade, rate ETimor, Flores, Bima, Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 876 *ree Rote wave wave The forms with final ii may be historically unrelated to those with final ee. Physical world, sea lee-k {2} lii (J:286, 309) lee-ʔ {2} lii lee-k {2} lii lee-ʔ {2} lii ree lee-k {2} lii ree-k {2} rii lee ree, rii ree leen Helong 877 *reha PRM fathom, arm span fathom (n.) ; span *dəpa *d > *r /#_ (expect *d) *a > e /_# in wRM Spatial relations leʔa (J:288) leʔa leʔa lea rea leʔa reʔa lee ree nehe nehe (M:360) dea roʔa roha (Mo:162) ree 878 *rekət *ma-ka-rekət PRM tart, brackish tart ; brackish ; sour ; suffering k-9 Sense perception ma-ka-leʔe-k (J:292) ma-ka-leʔe ma-ka-leʔe-k ma-ka-leke ma-reʔe ma-ka-leʔe-k ma-ka-reʔe ma-ʔa-leʔa ma-ʔa-reʔa maʔ|neʔat maʔ|neʔat (M:305) mnekeŋ Helong 879 *rena PwRM hear, listen hear *dəŋəR Sense perception rena rena n-nena n-nena n-nena (M:361) nean rona (Mo:162) dene ʈerne 880 *reo PRM turn around turn around Motion (na)-leo (J:302) (na)-leo (na)-leo (na)-leo na-reo (na)-leo na-reo (na)-leo na-reo n-neo (M:363) 881 *rifu|n PRM thousand thousand *Ribu *R = *r (expect Ø) The origin of final *n is currently unclear, though it is attested widely outside of Rote-Meto. Quantity lifun (J:312) lifun lifun lifun rifun lifun rifun lifun rifun ni͡ufun nifun lihu rihun (Mo:161) riwun, riwan 882 *rimbu Rote teem, abound surround ; teem ; abound *libut ‘surround, encircle, as game’ *l > *r; *b > *mb *liɓu Creatures ri~rimbu rimbu-rimbu 883 *riŋin *ma-riŋin, *ma-ka-riŋin PRM cold cold *diŋin *d > *r #/_ (expect *d); *ŋ = *ŋ Medial PRM *ŋ is required to account for Meto k ~ n. Termanu dinis = ‘dew’ (Jonker 1908:88) may be connected, as suggested by Jonker, though this would require irregular initial *d = d. Additionally, Tii has denis which would attest irr. *i > e. Sense perception ma-ka-lini (J:314) ma-ka-lini ma-ka-lini ma-ka-lini ma-rini ma-ka-lini ma-ka-rini ma-ʔa-lini ma-ʔa-rini mainikin mainikin (M:298) manikin manikin, manikin, bliŋin malirin (Mo:137) rinna meriŋi 884 *roɗok PRM crawl, creep crawl regular *ɗ > **l /*l_ in Meto (and Helong) e.g. *roɗok > **loɗok > **lolok > nonok *noɗo Motion lodo (J:319) lodo lodo lodo rodo lodo roɗok roɗoʔ n-nonok n-nonok (M:384) lolo roɗo Helong, Hawu-Dhao 885 *roko *na-ka-roko Rote rattle rattle k-5 onomatopoeia Speech and language na-ka-loko (J:322) na-ka-loko na-ka-loko na-ka-loko na-ro~roko na-ka-loko na-ka-roko na-ʔa-loko kerəko Hawu-Dhao 886 *roŋɡa Rote pen, corral pen ; corral House loŋa (J:326) loŋa loŋa loŋa roka loŋɡa loŋɡa roŋɡa loŋɡa roŋɡa ɗoka Hawu-Dhao 887 *rose PRM rub, wipe rub ; wipe Actions lose (J:328) lose lose lose rose lose rose lose rose n-nose n-nose {2} ʔ-nose-ʔ (M:386) rose roho , (On:448) Flores, Sumba, Hawu-Dhao, CTimor 888 *rou *rou-k Rote skin skin While the Out-comparisons are formally similar, they point to earlier **l which would not regularly develop into PRM *r. Furthermore, the semantic match between ‘skin’ and ‘sarong’, while not implausible, is also not entirely convincing. Thus, they are probably chance resemblances. Body, torso lou-k (J:329f) lou-ʔ lou-k lou-ʔ rou-ʔ rou-ʔ lou-k lou-k rou-k lou-ʔ rou-ʔ (On:234) Flores, Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 889 *ruan PMeto village village *r > l (expect k) in poetic Molo form (possibly archaic retention with *r > l after *r > k) Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PAN *kuan on the basis of an Amis form and Meto kuan. Ro'is Amarasi ruan with initial r shows that this reconstruction is a result of chance similarity. perhaps from earlier **nduan May be connected with Rongga, Ngadha, Lio, and Ende nua ‘village’. Social and political relations ruan kuan kuan {2} luan (M:243) 890 *ruku Rote bent over bent *duku ‘bend over, stoop’ k-5 *d > *r /#_ (expect *d) Actions luku~luku (J:332) luku~luku luku~luku (luku~luku ?) luku~luku ruku~ruku ruʔu 891 *rumu Rote press press Blust and Trussel (ongoing) identify the Termanu form as a reflex of PMP *lumu ‘soft’, but initial *l cannot account for Rote varieties with initial r, which regularly comes from *r. Actions lumu (J:334) lumu lumu lumu rumu lumu rumu lumu rumu lumu Helong 892 *rumbi Rote mantle of a squid mantle Body, animal body lumpi-k lumbi-ʔ rumbi-ʔ rupu, rupe SW Maluku 893 *ruŋirai Rote whale whale *u > o in Rikou Jonker (1908:334) tentatively suggests this may be a borrowing from Hawu. Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon luŋilai (J:334) lunilai rokirai luŋɡilai ruŋɡirai luŋɡilai ruŋɡirai luŋirai Hawu-Dhao 894 *rutus PRM rust rust Physical world na-lu~lutu {2} lu~lutu-k (J:336) na-lu~lutu na-lu~lutu na-lu~lutu na-ru~rutu na-lu~lutu na-ru~rutu na-lu~lutu na-ru~rutu nutus nutus (M:327) rotus rutu ETimor, Flores, Hawu-Dhao 895 *-s PwRM people group suffix tribe ; ethnic group People ─s ─s ─s, -as ─s, -as (M:xxix) 896 *saa PwRM what? what? Cognition saa saa saaʔn=aa saaʔ (M:462) na-saʔa saa saa (Mo:163) Helong, ETimor 897 *saɓake *saɓake-k, *na-saɓake nRM branch branch k-10 Plants, plant parts baʔe-k {2} na-baʔe (J:20) baʔe baʔe-k bake-ʔ bake-ʔ bake-ʔ baʔe-k ɓaʔe-k sbake|ʔ sbake|ʔ {2} na-sbake (M:478) 898 *saɓuu CERM blown up, inflated; smoke inflated ; smoke *uu > oo in Meto Spatial relations bu~buu (J:60) na-sboo {2} sboo-t 899 *sadu PRM wig, false hair wig d-2 Clothing and grooming salu (J:518) salu salu salu saru salu saru salu saru saluʔ saluʔ ruharu Helong, Hawu-Dhao 900 *saɗa PRM cut, peel cut ; peel Food and drink sa~sada (J:507f) sa~sada sa~sada sa~sada sa~sada sa~sada sa~saɗa sa~saɗa n-sara n-sala (M:471) sadat Helong 901 *saɗi Rote as long as as long as ; while Time sadi (J:508) sadi sadi sadi sadi sadi saɗi saɗi saɗi sadi haɗi Helong, Hawu-Dhao 902 *saɗodo PRM slide, slip slide d-2 *ɗ > nd in Oenale consonant metathesis *dVr > *rVd in Bilbaa, Rikou and Landu; consonant metathesis *lVn > *lVn in Molo Motion dolo (J:98) dolo dolo lodo na-rodo-ʔ rodo dolo ɗoro ɗolo ndoro na-sroro , {2} n-sinolok (M:xliii) sarodok, sadorok (Mo:167, 164) heɗoɗo, heɗoɗi ETimor, Hawu-Dhao 903 *safe CERM catchbirdtree, birdcatcher tree, birdlime tree Pisonia alba |ui{Pisonia alba} Hoola van Nooten et al. (1880) say of |ui{Pisonia alba} ‘The leaves of |ui{Pisonia sylvestris} and |ui{P. alba} are used as a vegetable. |ui{Pisonia alba} is known as Moluccan cabbage and is an albino form of the lettuce tree (|ui{Pisonia grandis R.Br.})’ Their picture is of a plant with large white (or green) leaves. This matches well the description of the plant given by Jonker (1908:511). |ui{Pisonia sylvestris} appears to be a synonym of |ui{Pisonia alba}. Plants, tree, plant taxon safe (J:511, Heyne 1950:610,cxviii) (M:465) 904 *saha₁ *saha-k nRM whetstone whetstone *hasaq ‘whet, sharpen’ *a > Ø *q > *h regular *h > Ø /a_a in Rote. The Waima'a out-comparison indicates earlier *hasaq > **saqa. Tools saa-k (J:507) saa-ʔ saa-k saa-ʔ saa-k saa-k saha|k n-saha {2} sahan (M:466) saʔa ETimor 905 *saha₂ *na-saha PRM carry on the shoulders carry on the shoulders *pasaqan *q > *h regular *h > Ø /a_a in Rote Motion na-saa (J:506) na-saa na-saa na-saa na-saa na-saa na-saa na-saa na-saa na-saha 906 *sai₁ nRM flow flow Motion sai (J:512) sai sai sai sai (sai ?) na-sai sai Helong 907 *sai₂ Rote open open Spatial relations sai (J:512) sai sai sai sii_bati {2} sai sai sai sai sai sai Helong 908 *sai₃ Rote torn up torn up Actions sai~sai {2} sai (J:513) sai~sai sai~sai sai~sai sai~sai sai~sai sait Helong 909 *saka PRM thigh, buttocks thigh ; buttocks k-irr. *a > i in much of Nuclear-Rote; *k > h /V_V in Meto Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct Proto-Philippine *sáka ‘leg of a fowl (?)’. Body, limbs, legs saki/bolo-k (J:514) saki/bolo-ʔ saki/bolo-k saka/bolo-ʔ saki/bolo-ʔ saki/bolo-k saka_ɓolo-k saka-ʔ saka-ʔ saka-ʔ saha-k (M:466) saha-n sakan (Mo:164) ETimor 910 *sake PRM go up, ascend, rise go up ; rise up *sakay ‘climb, ascend, rise up’ k-8 Motion saʔe (J:509) saʔe saʔe sake saʔe saʔe saʔe sae sae n-sae n-sae n-sae (M:464) saa sake saʔe (Mo:164) haʔe 911 *sakiki *na-sakiki PRM brush teeth brush teeth *kiskis ‘shave, scrape off’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) also reconstruct the doublet *gisgis ‘rub, scrape against’ which is reflected as ‘brush (one’s teeth)’ in Tausug in the Philippines. initial k-2a, medial k-6 Body na-sa-kiki, kiki {2} kiki-k (J:236) na-sa-kiki na-sa-kiki na-sa-kiki (na-sakiki ?) na-sa-ʔiʔi na-sa-ʔiʔi na-skiki na-skiki {2} na-skiki (M:236) ta-skiik kikin sakiki nehan Helong, ETimor 912 *sakoro *na-sakoro PRM sip sip k-1 *r > Ø in all Rote except Oenale Food and drink na-sa-koo (J:241) na-sa-koo na-sa-koo na-sa-koo na-sa-oo na-sa-koo na-sa-koo na-sa-koo na-sa-koro na-sakono 913 *sala PRM wrong, mistake, incorrect wrong *salaq ‘wrong, in error (of behaviour); miss (a target); mistake, error, fault’ Emotions and values sala (J:514) sala sala sala sala sala sala sala sala n-sana n-sana (M:473) sala sala (Mo:165) 914 *sale nRM sorry, contrition sorry Emotions and values sale (J:517) sale sale sale sale sale sale sane-l=oo-n (M:474) 915 *sali PnRote pour, fill pour *salin ‘pour from one vessel into another; translate, interpret’ PWMP. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) also reconstruct PMP *saliR ‘flow, of water’, which is where they place the Termanu cognate, but if this were correct we would expect the final vowel in Rote to lower before loss of final *R. Actions sali (J:517) sali sali sali sali sali sali sali salin (Mo:165) hali 916 *salili *na-salili, *salili-k PRM armpit armpit **salili pre-RM Body, limbs, arms na-sa-lili {2} lili_bolo-k (J:313) na-sa-lili {2} lili_poo-ʔ na-sa-lili {2} lili_bolo-k na-sa-lili {2} lili_poo-ʔ na-sa-lili {2} lili_bolo-ʔ na-sa-lili {2} lili_bolo-k na-sa-lili {2} lili_ɓolo-k na-sa-lili {2} lili_kolo-ʔ na-sa-lili {2} lili_ndola-ʔ snini-f snini-f {2} na-snini snini-n (M:507) snini-f slili kalili, klilin (Mo:110) kahalilin (dJ:119) hililla lila-r saliri Helong, ETimor, Wetar, SW Maluku, Bima, CTimor 917 *saluku *na-saluku PnRote gather under the wings gather under wings k-5/6 Creatures, birds na-sa-lu~luku (J:332) na-sa-lu~luku na-sa-lu~luku na-sa-lu~luku na-sa-lu~luʔu na-sa-lu~luku na-ka-lu~luʔuk herugu Hawu-Dhao 918 *sambat *ka-sambat PRM bucket bucket Tools samba-k sambat sambat sambat ʔ|sapa|ʔ sapat (k)naban, kanaban (Mo:165) haba (On:60) Helong, ETimor, Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 919 *sambi PRM remove bark debark Plants, agriculture sapi (J:522) sapi sapi sapi sapi sampi sambi sambi sambi sambi n-sapi n-sapi (M:476) sabir ETimor 920 *sambudas PRM sow, scatter; scattered about; splash water on something spurt **sa(m)bura[t/s] pre-RM d-2 *mb > p in Oenale and Tii Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct a number of forms which are formally and semantically similar to the form I have placed in the etymology field: *sa(m)buR, *sabuD, *saq(ə)buR, *buras. None of these can quite account for the RM reflexes, though (of course) there are also problems with my own tentative reconstruction. Motion na-sa-pula (J:502) na-sa-pula na-sa-pula na-sa-pula na-sa-pura na-sa-mpula na-sa-pura na-sa-mbula, mbulas puras puras, purak na-spuraʔ, n-puran {2} , n-pulan {3} (M:453) Maluku, Flores 921 *sana|ʔ PMeto bunch of fruit branch ; bunch of fruit *saŋa ‘bifurcation, fork of a branch’ Plants, plant parts saan_oo noa_sana|ʔ {2} saan_oo sana|ʔ (M:473) saŋa ai sanak (Mo:166) ʤaŋa 922 *sanahulu Rote ten ten *sa-ŋa-puluq *h > Ø in wRote Quantity sanahulu {2} hulu (J:196) sanahulu {2} hulu sanahulu {2} hulu sanahulu {2} hulu sanahulu {2} hulu salahunu {2} hulu sanahulu {2} hulu salahunu {2} nulu sanahulu {2} nulu smulu hŋulu sanulu (Mo:166) heŋuru 923 *sanasə PRM breath breath ; breathe ; cheek *ə > u in some Rote (probably sporadic assimilation of antepenultimate vowel to stressed vowel in some cases) The closest resemblance in PMP is *ŋəsŋəs. Body, head, mouth nase_buʔu-k (J:381) nase_buʔu-k nase_buku-ʔ, nasu_bukuʔ nasa_buʔu-ʔ nasu-k nasu-k nasu-k nasu-ʔ nasu-ʔ snasa-f {2} na-snasa snasa-f {2} na-snasa (M:505) na-sŋasa, na-kŋasa hŋasa Helong 924 *sanu Rote coconut with soft flesh coconut, kind Plants, tree, palm, coconut, fruit noo_sanu (J:520) noo_sanu noo_sanu noo_sanu noo_sanu noo_sanu noo_sanu noo_sanu noo_sanu haŋo (On:67) Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 925 *sandiit nRM an insect which makes a loud noise, either a cicada or cricket cicada ; cricket *nd > k in Ro'is; *nd > r in Kusa-Manea; *nd > t in Termanu and Korbafo (onomatopoeia and/or assimilation to previous t); *nd > d in East Rote Onomatopoeia may be the source of some of the irregularities. Creatures, bugs, insects, insects with wings, creature taxon toko_tii-k (J:640) toko_tii toko_lii (tee) di~dii toko/dii, di~dii toko_ndiʔi-k (toko_tii-k ?) skiit skiit ani_kra~riit=aa kniit hnii(t) ulan da~dii_derok (Mo:20) Helong, ETimor 926 *saŋɡeŋɡer PRM surprise, startle, frighten surprise ; startle ; frighten Emotions and values ŋɡeŋe {2} na-ŋɡeŋe(-k) (J:437) ŋɡeŋe ŋeŋe ŋeŋe keker=asa keke ŋɡeŋɡe ŋɡeŋɡer ŋɡeŋɡe ŋɡeŋɡer ŋɡeŋɡer {2} na-ŋɡeŋɡe-ʔ na-skeke na-skeke na-skeke (M:501) °nahkeka 927 *saŋɡuma *saŋɡuma-k PRM hermit crab crab, hermit *[q/k]umaŋ *ŋɡ > k in wRote The source of initial *saŋɡ is currently unknown. It could be connected with Rote *saŋɡa ‘look for’ given that hermit crabs look for their shell, but this is highly speculative. The wRote forms probably reflect *kumaŋ without any additional element. Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon ŋɡuma-k (J:449) ŋɡuma-ʔ ŋuma-ʔ kuma-ʔ kuma-ʔ ŋɡuma-k ŋɡuma-k kuma-ʔ ʔuma-ʔ ʔuma-ʔ skuma|ʔ skuma|ʔ 928 *sao₁ PRM marry marry *qasawa ‘spouse: husband, wife’ People, kin sao (J:521) sao sao sao sao sao sao sao sao n-sao {2} n-mat/sao n-sao {2} n-mat/sao {3} mat/sao-s n-sao {2} n-mat/sao {3} sao-m (M:477) safa sapa {2} sapan 929 *sao₂ *kai/sao PRM green viper snake ; viper *sawa ‘python’ Initial *kai probably from *kaiu ‘tree, plant, wood’. Creatures, bugs, creature taxon kai/sao (J:217) kai/sao kai/sao kai/sao kai/sao ai/sao ai/sao ai/sao sao ʔ/sao uʔ/sao, aʔ/sao (M:592) sao sa/mea (Mo:166) 930 *sara PRM loose, spread out loose ; spread out Spatial relations sala~sala (J:516) sala~sala sala~sala sala~sala sara~sara sala~sala sara~sara sala~sala sara~sara (M:473) 931 *saraa PRM light, shine light (n.) ; shine ; sunbeam *r > l in nRote Sense perception na-sa-laa {2} bula-k na-sa-laa {3} bula ma-sa-laa-k (J:261) {2} na-sa-laa na-sa-laa {2} na-sa-laa {2} na-sa-laa na-sa-laa {2} na-sa-laa na-sa-laa {2} na-sa-laa {2} na-sa-la~laa na-sa-raa {2} na-sa-ra~raa snaa-f {2} snaa-t=ee n-sae {2} feʔ asnaa-t=ee (M:504) 932 *sarait *na-sarait PRM lean lean Spatial relations na-sa-lai {2} (ai) la~lai-s (J:270) na-sa-lai na-sa-lai na-sa-lai na-sa-rai na-sa-lai na-sa-rai na-sa-lai na-sa-rai na-snait na-snait (M:505) nahlae hakrai (Mo:173) Helong, ETimor 933 *sarakaen PRM sand sand k-irr. *a > o in most nRote; *k > Ø in Lole, Tii, and Meto (expect *k = k) The irregular loss of *k in Meto and (optionally) in Lole and Tii is probably due to antepenultimate vowel reduction to intermediate **sarkae with subsequent deletion medial *k to resolve the consonant cluster. Physical world solokae-k (J:561) solokae-ʔ solokae-k solokae-ʔ soroʔae-ʔ soroʔae-ʔ soroʔae-ʔ solokae-k salakae-k, salae-k sarakae-k, sarae-k salaʔae-ʔ saraʔae snaen snaen snaan °slaen °hlaen lahalae salae sarae ETimor, Bima, Hawu-Dhao, Maluku 934 *sare *na-sare PnRote facing somewhere facing Spatial relations na-sale (J:517) na-sale na-sale na-sale na-sare na-sale na-sare salo Helong 935 *sasi PRM overflow overflow Physical world, water sasi (J:524) sasi sasi sasi sasi sasi sasi sasi sasi sasi sasi Helong 936 *sau₁ nRM bite bite Body, emission sau (J:524f) sau sau sau sau n-sau n-sau n-sau (M:478) sau Helong 937 *sau₂ PRM pick pick *VV-ʔ > VʔV in Meto (perceptual metathesis) Actions sau (J:524) sau sau sau sau-ʔ n-saʔu (M:477) 938 *sau₃ Rote comb comb *sau *au = *au (expect *oo) Clothing and grooming sau-k {2} sau (J:524) sau-ʔ sau-k sau-ʔ sau-ʔ sau-k sau-k sau-t sau-t 939 *seɗa Rote kind of red coral used as bead coral, kind Clothing and grooming (henu) seda_sada, (henu) seda_ndao {2} seda (J:527, Fox 2016b:49) seda seda seda seda seɗa (wona) hiɗa (On:38) Hawu-Dhao, Sumba 940 *seɗo PRM mix mix Food and drink se~sedo-k, sedo-k (J:527f) se~sedo-ʔ se~sedo-k se~sedo-ʔ se~sedo-ʔ se~sedo-k se~seɗo-k se~seɗo-ʔ se~seɗo-ʔ n-seroʔ n-seroʔ (M:483) 941 *see₁ PwRM address address Speech and language meʔu_see na-see 942 *see₂ PRM who? who? *sai Cognition see (J:525) see see see see see see seka se/kau se/kau se/kau (M:483) see asii, sii see (Mo:169) 943 *sefe Rote paddle paddle *bəRsay ‘canoe paddle; paddle a canoe’ consonant metathesis *fVs > *sVf Motion, boats sefe (J:529) sefe sefe sefe sefe sefe sefe sefe sefe 944 *sefi PRM set loose, untie untie *f > (?*h) > ʔ in Termanu, Korbafo and Bokai Actions seʔi (J:529) seʔi seʔi sefi sefi sefi sefi sefi sefi n-sefi n-sefi (M:480) 945 *seke PRM force, stuck force ; stuck k-10 Actions na-ka-seʔe, seʔe {2} seʔe~seʔe (J:528) na-ka-seʔe na-ka-seʔe na-ka-seke, seke~seke na-seke na-ka-seʔe na-ka-seʔe na-ʔa-seʔe na-ʔa-seʔe na-ʔ|seke|ʔ , (M:481) naseke Helong 946 *seko nRM fish (v.) hunt ; fishing k-5/6ʹ (*k > Ø in Rikou; expect ʔ or k) Warfare and hunting seko (J:530) seko seko seko seo (seʔo ?) seko seko n-seko n-seko seko heko Helong, Hawu-Dhao 947 *seʔi PRM roast roast Food and drink seʔi (J:530) seʔi sei seʔi seʔi seʔi seʔi seʔi n-seʔi n-seʔi (M:481) həŋi Hawu-Dhao 948 *sela *sela-k Rote big, gross, coarse coarse ; rough *səlaR *a > e /_# in wRote Spatial relations sela-k (J:531) sela-ʔ sela-k sela-ʔ sela-ʔ sela-k sela-k sele-ʔ sele-ʔ bsedaʔ selaʔ 949 *selə PRM plant (v.) plant (v.) Plants, agriculture sele (J:581) sele sele sele sele sele sele sela sela n-sena n-seen (M:483) n-sena həle Hawu-Dhao 950 *selut PRM replace, exchange replace ; exchange Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct Proto-Philippine *sulit which could be connected via vowel metathesis. Possession selu-k {2} na-seluk (J:535) selu-ʔ selu-k selu-ʔ selu-ʔ selu-k selu-k selut selut n-senu|ʔ (M:485) silu haselu (Mo:80) selu (dJ:136) (On:91) nʧelu {2} selu Helong, ETimor, Wetar, Bima, Sumba 951 *sembo PRM barter, swap, exchange barter ; swap ; exchange Possession sepo (J:539) sepo sepo sepo sepo sempo sembo sembo sembo na-sepo 952 *seŋa PRM fry fry *saŋəlaR ‘stir-fry, cook in a frying pan without oil’ *laR > Ø *ŋ = *ŋ antepenultimate *a > *e Medial *ŋ is required to account for Meto k. Mills (2010:285) also draws attention to Leti sekra with irregular medial *ŋ > k rather than expected n. Food and drink se~sena (J:537) se~sena se~sena se~sena se~sena se~sena se~sena se~sena se~sena ta-seek na-seka neŋan sona (Mo:173) 953 *seŋɡi PRM snap off, harvest snap off ; harvest Plants, agriculture seŋi (J:537) seŋi seŋi seŋi seki seŋɡi seŋɡi seŋɡi seŋɡi n-seki n-seki {2} na-t|seki (M:482) ta-seik siŋin Helong 954 *seo nRM whisper whisper Speech and language na-se~seo (J:538) na-se~seo na-se~seo na-se~seo na-se~seo na-se~seo na-se~seo na-ʔseʔo (M:485) 955 *seru PRM weaving sword (part of the loom) loom, weaving sword of ; weave **sədu(t) Clothing and grooming selu (J:535) selu selu selu seru selu seru se~seru senu senu silu souru, soru (Mo:174) seru pehəɗu Helong, ETimor, Flores, Hawu-Dhao 956 *sesə PRM stuff, cram in; be crowded cram *səksək The Meto unmetathesised form has not yet been attested. It could be *na-ʔsesa or *na-ʔsese. Spatial relations sese (J:539) sese sese sese sese sese sese sesa sesa na-ʔsees həhi, kehəhi 957 *seti PRM tight, tightly packed tight ; packed ; force Spatial relations na-ka-seti (J:541) na-ka-seti na-ka-seti na-ka-seti na-seti na-ka-seti na-ka-seti na-ʔa-seti na-ʔa-seti na-ʔ|seti|ʔ {2} n-seit=oo-n siti seti (Mo:171) Helong, ETimor 958 *seu PRM pick fruit pick Plants, agriculture seu (J:541) seu seu seu seu seu seu seu seu n-seu n-seu {2} na-t|seu (M:488) seu n-sio n-sio sikuʔ Helong 959 *səru PRM meet, greet meet ; greet **səru pre-RM *ə > o in Rote Social and political relations na-so~solu (J:561) na-so~solu na-so~solu na-so~solu na-so~soru na-so~solu na-so~soru na-so~solu na-so~soru n-senu n-senu (M:485) hasoru hasouru (Mo:80) ETimor, Flores 960 *səu PRM kind of tree Alstonia villosa |ui{Alstonia villosa} *ə > o in nRote ‘Alstonia trees are used in traditional medicine. The bark of the |ui{Alstonia constricta} and the |ui{Alstonia scholaris} is a source of a remedy against malaria, toothache, rheumatism and snake bites. The latex is used in treating coughs, throat sores and fever.’ (Wikipedia) (‘Alstonia’ 2020 Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alstonia. Accessed 17/09/2020) Plants, tree, plant taxon sou (J:565) sou sou sou sou sou (sou ?) seu-ʔ seu-ʔ hau seu (M:488) 961 *siɗa PRM rip rip Actions sida (J:543) sida sida sida sida sida siɗa siɗa, siɗe siɗa, siɗe na-klatiʔ {2} (M:495) (On:94) 962 *sifi PRM braid, plait braid Actions sifi (J:544) sifi sifi sifi sifi sifi sifi sifi sifi n-sifi n-sifi (M:490) həɓi Hawu-Dhao 963 *sii₁ CER tie up, snare tie up ; snare Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct Proto-Philippine *siluq ‘noose, snare; net’. Actions sii (J:542) hii Hawu-Dhao 964 *sii₂ *sii-k Rote shellfish shellfish Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct *sisi and *sisuq (with doublet *sisiq) ‘small snail or periwinkle’. Creatures, aquatic si~sii-k (J:542) si~sii-ʔ si~sii-k si~sii-ʔ si~sii-ʔ si~sii-k si~sii-k laʔi_sii-ʔ lai_sii-ʔ sii (dJ:137) Wetar 965 *sika Rote open, uncover open *siŋkab k-5 *ŋk > *k *a > e /_# in wRote *siŋɡa Spatial relations sika (J:544) sika sika sika sike sike 966 *sikəh PRM lath, rod (part of the loom) loom, part ; lath ; rod k-irr. *ə > a in Termanu and Ba'a; *k > Ø in Oenale and Meto (given other Rote k we expect *k > k or ʔ in both) *ə > e /σ_# in wRote (perhaps *ə > *a > e /_#) Clothing and grooming sika-k (J:544) si~sike-ʔ sike-k sike-ʔ siʔe-ʔ sika-k siʔe-k sike-t sie-t siah sia-l (M:489) sia Helong 967 *siku *siku-k PRM elbow elbow *siku k-7 antepenultimate vowel assimilation in wRote Body, limbs, arms siʔu-k (J:549) siʔu-ʔ siʔu-k siku-ʔ lima siʔu-ʔ siku-ʔ siʔu-k siʔu-k siki_buku-ʔ siki_ɓuku-ʔ si͡uʔu-f siʔu-f siʔu-f (M:500) siʔu-f siku-n sikun siku-n (Mo:171) 968 *simo PRM receive receive *m > *mb in Rote Possession sipo (J:547) sipo sipo sipo sipo simpo simbo simbo simbo n-simo, n-simu n-simo (M:496) siam simu simu (Mo:172) simu həmi, həme səmi, həme Helong, ETimor, Flores, Hawu-Dhao, CTimor 969 *sina *sina-k PRM light (n.) light (n.) *siŋaR ‘ray of light; to shine’ *a > e /_# in wRM Physical world, sky bula_sina-k (J:546) bula_sina-k fula sine-ʔ meuʔ_sina|ʔ meuʔ_sine|ʔ {2} sine|ʔ, sina|ʔ n-sine|k {2} huma-n an-sine|k (M:497) maʔsian rai (nak)sinak (Mo:172) 970 *sinaraʔe PRM kingfisher with white underbelly and blue back and head. There are two such species in Timor; the Sacred Kingfisher and the Collared Kingfisher Todiramphus chloris, Todiramphus sanctus bird, kingfisher ; kingfisher *i > u in Bilbaa; *r > l in Dela; *e > Ø in Dela (if the putative reflex is cognate) glottal stop insertion in Kotos Amarasi (first syllable); antepenultimate vowel reduction in all reflexes I have reconstructed initial *i on the basis of Rikou and Lole with i, as well as Amfo'an which attests a front vowel e. Under this hypothesis Bilbaa has undergone irr. *i > u while Dela, Ro'is Amarasi, and Kotos Amarasi have reduced this vowel to the default unstressed vowel a. This form also has ante-penultimate vowel reduction in most lects with subsequent coalescence of the resulting consonant cluster in all lects apart from Lole. Creatures, birds, creature taxon sulae sirae sinlaʔe sanala-ʔ sanae saʔnaʔe|k senae-l 971 *sinor Rote maggots maggots Creatures, bugs, grub sino-k (J:547) sino-ʔ sino-k sino-ʔ sino-ʔ sino-k sino sino-ʔ sinor sinun Helong 972 *siŋɡa CER open, uncover open *siŋkab *sika Spatial relations siŋa 973 *siŋɡadaʔ PwRM scold scold d-2 Lack of known reflexes in nRote means the medial consonant is ambiguous between *ʤ and *d-2. nRote l/r would support *d-2, while d/ɗ would support *ʤ. Speech and language asiŋɡa~ŋɡaraʔ na-skaraʔ 974 *sio PRM nine nine *siwa vowel height harmony *i > e /_o in some Meto Quantity sio (J:547) sio sio sio sio sio sio sio sio seo seo seo, sio (M:485) sio sioʔ sioʔ seoʔ seo sipa sipa siwi sia (Mo:171) sibe siwi heo 975 *sira PRM they they ; them ; 3PL *si-ida People, pronouns sila (J:545) sila sila sila sira sira sila sira sila sira siin, sini, sina siin, sini, sina siin (M:496) sian sira (Mo:172) hira (dJ:118) 976 *sisi PwRM flesh, meat meat ; flesh *həsi Ø > *s; *ə > *i (sporadic assimilation) Body, internal organs sisi sisi sisi-n sisi-f sisi (M:499) sisi °sisi 977 *soda *soda-k PRM space space d-irr. *d > ɗ in wRote (expect *d > r/l) Alternately, we could reconstruct *soɗa and posit irr. *ɗ > n in Meto. Physical world soda-k {2} uma=a soda=na, uma soda-k {3} dae soda-k {4} soda~soda (J:552ff) soda-ʔ {2} soda-ʔ {4} soda~soda soda-k {2} soda-k {4} soda~soda soda-ʔ {2} soda-ʔ {4} soda~soda soda-ʔ {2} soda-ʔ {4} soda~soda soda-k {2} soda-k {4} soda~soda soɗa-k {2} soɗa-k {4} soɗa~soɗa soɗa-ʔ {2} ume soɗa-ʔ, ume=a so~soɗa=na {4} soɗa~soɗa soɗa-ʔ {2} soɗa-ʔ {4} soɗa~soɗa soɗa sona-f {2} na-ʔsonaʔ sonaʔ {2} na-ʔsonaʔ {3} sona-f (M:513) 978 *soɗa Rote sing sing Speech and language soda (J:552) soda soda soda soda soda soɗa soɗa soɗa hoɗa-keʄeka Flores, Hawu-Dhao 979 *soe PRM disaster disaster Social and political relations soe (J:554) soe soe soe soe soe soe soe soe n-soe soe-l soe Helong 980 *soeneru PRM leaf umbrella umbrella, leaf vowel metathesis in Meto *eCu > uCe Clothing and grooming suneru soenelu-ʔ soeneru-ʔ soeneru-ʔ snunaʔ, snuneʔ (M:508) snunaʔ salurin salurik (Mo:165) ETimor 981 *soi PRM open, ransom, pay off open ; ransom Spatial relations soi (J:556) soi soi soi soi soi soi soi soi n-soi {2} na-soitan {3} na-tsoi {4} na-soin n-soi {2} na-soin {3} na-soitan (M:510) sui soi (Mo:173) soi Helong, ETimor, Flores 982 *soka Rote sack made from palm leaves sack, kind k-5 possibly connected with Dutch zak Tools soka (J:557) soka soka soka soʔa soka sokaʔ sokaʔ hoka Hawu-Dhao 983 *soke PRM scoop up, pick out scoop ; pick out k-8/9ʹ (Kotos Amarasi Ø Molo ʔ correspondence; expect either Ø in both for pattern 8 or ʔ in both for pattern 9) Food and drink soʔe (J:555) soʔe soʔe soke soʔe soʔe soʔe soʔe soʔe n-soe (M:509) soke {2} soet sukit {2} sui (Mo:175) Helong, ETimor, Sulawesi 984 *sokum PRM galangal Kaempferia Galanga galangal k-6 *o > i in Meto Jonker (1908) suggests this is from Kupang Malay koncur (compare Malay kencur) with consonant metathesis, but this doesn’t explain the final m in Meto. Plants, edible plants, vegetables sokus (J:558) soku-ʔ soku soku soʔus sokus soku soʔu soʔu sikum sukuŋ Helong 985 *soʔi *soʔi-t PnMeto comb comb Clothing and grooming soʔi-t sui {2} sa~suit (Mo:174, 168) sui ETimor 986 *soo PRM sew sew **sauR pre-RM Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PCMP *sora, including Meto as one of their attestations. The cognates in Timor and Flores appear to be better explained by *sauR, with no final vowel and *R [r] instead of *r [ɾ]. The final vowel in Blust and Trussel’s putative *sora would only be supported by Leti sora, Wetan ora, and Kemak sora However, the Luangic languages (including Leti and Wetan) are known to added final vowels to historically consonant final stems (Blevins and Garret 1998:542f), thus rendering their evidence moot. The Kemak form provides better evidence for final *a, but this goes against the evidence of many languages in the region, including Rote-Meto, which would be expected to retain *a = a. Furthermore, if *R is reconstructed rather than *r, than *R > r is irregular in Kemak as we expect *R > Ø. Clothing and grooming soo (J:550) soo soo soo soo soo soo soo soo n-soo n-soo (M:508) soo hour sora Helong, SW Maluku, Flores 987 *soro PRM spoon, ladle, scoop scoop ; spoon *sudu *u > *o *r > n ~ k in Meto (compare similar *təlo > tenoʔ/tekoʔ ‘egg’) *suru Food and drink, tools solo (J:559) solo solo solo soro solo soro solo soro ʔ|sono|ʔ (M:511) ʔ|soko|ʔ 988 *sosa PMeto buy buy ; sell *osa price, value Possession n-sosa {2} na-ʔsosaʔ n-sosa {2} na-ʔsosaʔ n-sosa {2} na-ʔsosaʔ (M:516) soas sosa sosa (Mo:174) Helong, ETimor 989 *soso Rote peel peel Food and drink soso (J:564) soso soso soso soso soso soso soso soso Sulawesi 990 *sua₁ PnRote accuse accuse Social and political relations, law sua (J:567) sua sua sua sua sua suan kali Helong 991 *sua₂ PnMeto rafter, roof-spar rafter *sukəd ‘prop, support; to prop up or support’ *k > Ø /u_ House sua-f sua-f (M:518) sukan 992 *sua₃ *ka-sua-k PRM digging stick digging stick *suaR ‘lift up with a lever, lever up, root up’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) also reconstruct doublets *sual and *suat. Plants, agriculture ai_su~sua-k (J:568) ai_su~sua-ʔ ai_su~sua-k kai_su~sua-ʔ ai_su~sua-ʔ ai_su~sua-k ai_su~sua-k hau_su~sua-ʔ hau_su~sua-ʔ ʔ|suak {2} na-ʔ|sua (M:519) ksuan suan ai suak {2} au suak besi (Mo:175) 993 *suɓa PRM bury bury The semantic shift from ‘bury’ to ‘engrossed’ is likely (e.g. compare English phrases such as She’s buried in her book). However, if the Dela form is cognate and its semantics are older, then the Rote forms are probably not cognate with Meto. Body suba (J:568) suba suba suba suba suba suɓa suba suɓa suɓa-k, suɓa~suɓa n-suba n-suba n-suba (M:519) suub subal, subar (Mo:175) ETimor 994 *sufu PRM cool in water cool (v.) *səbuh ‘douse a fire, extinguish a fire with water; to hiss, as water on fire’ *ə > *u (sporadic assimilation) Sense perception ma-ka-sufu-k {2} sufu {2} na-sufu (J:571) ma-ka-sufu-ʔ ma-ka-sufu-k ma-ka-sufu-ʔ ma-sufu-ʔ ma-ka-sufu-k ma-ka-sufu-k ma-ʔa-sufu-ʔ ma-ʔa-sufu-ʔ ma-ʔa-sufu sufuʔ suhu suhu (Mo:175) sowo Helong, ETimor, Flores, Bima 995 *suhat Rote kind of comb comb *suat PRM suhat would be regular from PMP *supat. Blust and Trussel give the following forms as evidence for their reconstruction with no medial consonant: Binukud and Mansaka suwat, Blaan (Sarangani) swat, Manam ruat-i, and ‘Rote’ . Clothing and grooming suʔa-k (J:568) suʔa-ʔ suʔa-k sua-ʔ suʔa-k suat suat 996 *suhu *suhu-k Rote boundary, border edge *supu Social and political relations suʔu-k (J:578) suʔu-ʔ suʔu-k suu-ʔ suu-ʔ suʔu-k suu-ʔ suu-ʔ suut huu 997 *suku *suku-k Rote breadfruit breadfruit *sukun k-7 Plants, tree, plant taxon suʔu-k (J:578) suʔu suʔu-k suku-ʔ suku-ʔ suʔu-k suʔu-k suku-ʔ suku-ʔ 998 *sulə PRM insert, plug plug *sulə[n/d] *ə > e /σ_# in wRote (perhaps *ə > *a > e /_#) Spatial relations sule (J:573) sule sule sule sule sule sule sule sule n-suun (M:523) 999 *suma PRM steam, vapour steam ; vapour Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PWMP *sebuh ‘to hiss or steam, of water touching a fire’ which is formally and semantically similar. Physical world, water suma (J:574) suma suma suma suma suma suma suma sumaʔ {2} n-suma sumaʔ (M:523) 1000 *sumanə *sumanə-k PRM soul of a living being; soul of the rice plant spirit *sumaŋəd Antepenultimate *u (high back rounded vowel) is probably required to account for Landu i (high vowel), as well as the alternate Termanu from with antepenultimate o (back rounded vowel). Body, internal organs samane-k, somane-k (J:519, Fanggidaej 1892:556) samane-ʔ samane-k samane-ʔ simane-ʔ samane-ʔ samane-k samane-k mana-ʔ samana-ʔ smana-f smana-f (M:504) smaŋin hmaŋin hemaŋa 1001 *sunu *su~sunu Rote kind of sea fish fish, kind Creatures, aquatic creatures, fish, creature taxon su~sunu (J:576) su~sunu su~sunu su~sunu su~sunu su~sunu su~sunu su~sunu su~sunu Maluku 1002 *suŋɡə *suŋɡə-k PRM cheek hollow cheek hollow *ə > e /σ_# in wRote (perhaps *ə > *a > e /_#) The Meto unmetathesised form has not yet been attested. It could be *suka- or *suku-. Body, head, mouth suŋe-k {2} na-suŋe (J:575) suŋe-ʔ suŋe-k suŋe-k suke-ʔ suke-ʔ suŋɡe-k suŋɡe-ʔ suŋɡe-ʔ suk~suuk-n=aa 1003 *sura *sura-k PRM horn horn *suja ‘pitfall or trail spikes made of sharpened bamboo’ *j > *r (expect *ɗ) Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct both PCMP *sula and *sulan ‘horn’ on the basis of Termanu sula and Buru sula-n. This reconstruction is problematic as the other Rote languages clearly attest PRM *r (which also accounts regularly for Termanu l). Additionally, the putative Buru term sula-n is not found in any published sources I have access to. Instead they give sodi-n (Grimes and Grimes 2020:864) or soden (Hendriks 1897:93). Hoogervorst (2016:568) identifies Sanskrit शूल śūla [ʃuːla] ‘a spear or lance, an offensive weapon’ as the source of putative PCMP *sula. While Sanskrit शूल śūla [ʃuːla] may be the source of PRM *sura, this would not account straightforwardly for medial *r. Jonker (1908:573) compares the Rote forms to tulane from Asilulu in Ambon (Hoëvell 1877:69). But this form would not show regular sound correspondences. Among languages of Ambon, Stresemann (1927:37) only records t as a reflex of *s in Amahei, and then only before non-high vowels. *sure Body, animal body su~sula-k (J:573) su~sula-ʔ su~sula-k su~sula-ʔ su~sura-ʔ su~sura-ʔ su~sula-k su~sura-k su~sula-ʔ sura-ʔ sunu-f suna-f suna-f (M:523) suna-f suluʔ Helong 1004 *sure *sure-k PRM pointed weapon; caltrop, sword sword ; caltrop *suja ‘pitfall or trail spikes made of sharpened bamboo’ *j > *r (expect *ɗ) *a > *e /*C+palatal_ *sura Warfare and hunting sule-k (J:574) sule-ʔ sule-k sule-ʔ suri-ʔ sule-k sure-k sule-ʔ sure-ʔ suni|ʔ suni|ʔ (M:524) suni|ʔ suliʔ surik (Mo:176) 1005 *suru PRM spoon, ladle, scoop scoop ; spoon *sudu *soro Food and drink, tools sulu {2} sulu-k (J:574) sulu sulu sulu suru sulu suru sulu suru sa~sunu|ʔ sulu suru (Mo:175) huru kaɓa huru 1006 *susi PRM investigate, walk around investigate ; walk around *i > u in Bilbaa and Rikou The semantic connection between the Meto terms and Rote terms is unclear to me, but Jonker (1908:576) gives the Meto forms as connected and it’s better to give all the (potential) data than to sweep things under the carpet. Motion susi (J:576) susi susi susu susu susi susi susi n-susi n-susi (M:525) 1007 *susu₁ PRM tax tax Given the semantics this may be a borrowing, though the kingdoms of Timor did have traditional systems of tribute. Possession susu (J:577) susu susu susu susu susu susu susu nusu n-suus (M:524) susut Helong 1008 *susu₂ PRM female breast; udder breast *susu *s > ʔ in Termanu, Korbafo, Bokai and Ba'a Body, torso suʔu (J:577) suʔu suʔu susu susu suʔu susu susu(-ʔ) susu susu susu-f susu (M:525) susu susu-n (Mo:177) 1009 *suti PRM nautilus, nautilus shell shell, kind ; nautilus ; conch ; volute I have reconstructed this term with the meaning ‘nautilus’ following the meaning in Rote rather than the meaning in Ro'is Amarasi as the people in Rote have a much stronger connection to the sea than the Atoni and it thus seems more likely that terms in Rote referring to the sea would be more conservative. This meaning is also probably partly retained in the Kotos Amarasi and Molo reflexes. Creatures, aquatic suti (J:577, Fox 2016b) suti suti suti suti suti suti suti suti suti suti suti (M:526) 1010 *suu₁ PRM scrape the ground scratch ; scrape Actions suu (J:566) suu suu suu suu suu suu suu suu na-k|suu {2} n-suu (M:518) suʔu (Mo:177) ETimor 1011 *suu₂ PRM carry on head carry on head *suqun Motion suu (J:566) suu suu suu suu suu suu suu suu n-suu n-suu (M:518) suu 1012 *taa₁ PRM track, footprint track *tapak ‘palm of the hand, sole of the foot’ PWMP *p > Ø (*p > Ø is regular in wRote, Bilbaa, Rikou and Meto but we would expect *p > ʔ in the other Rote languages) *a > e /_# in Meto Body, limbs ta~taa (J:580) ta~taa ta~taa ta~taa ta~taa ta~taa ta~taa ta~taa n-tae (M:527) tahe 1013 *taa₂ Rote unhusked rice rice, unhusked *qəta ‘rice husk, rice bran’ *ə > Ø with doubling of the final vowel to create a disyllable *eto Plants, edible plants, crops (hade) taa-k (J:581) taa-ʔ taa-k ka|taa-ʔ taa-ʔ taa-k taa-k taa-ʔ taa-ʔ 1014 *taa₃ PnRote negative marker: no, not no ; not *taq Cognition taa (J:578) taa taa taa taa taa taa ka 1015 *taa₄ *taa-k Rote endure endure *taqan ‘hold back, keep in reserve’ Final k cannot be straightforwardly analysed as synchronic suffix in Korbafo, Bilbaa and Dengka. Time na-taa-k=ana {2} na-ka-ta~taa-k (J:581) na-taa|k=ana na-taa-k=ana na-taa|k=ana na-taa-ʔ=ana na-taa-k=ana na-taa-k=ana na-taa|k=ana {2} na-ʔa-ta~taa-ʔ {2} na-ʔa-ta~taa-ʔ 1016 *taɓu PRM tread, step tread ; step Motion tabu (J:582) tabu tabu tabu tabu tabu taɓu tabu taɓu tabu tabu tabu (M:527) n-tabo tabu ETimor 1017 *tadeŋɡus PRM kind of dove, probably Rose-crowned Fruit-Dove Ptilinopus regina dove d-2 vowel metathesis in Kusa-Manea *eCu > *uCe > uCi Creatures, birds, creature taxon rekus rekus leŋɡus reŋɡus kuum_tre͡ukus ra~rukis 1018 *taɗu *la-taɗu-k CER opposite opposite Spatial relations la-tadu-k (J:585) la-tadu-k la-tadu-k ntando {2} satando {3} tando Bima 1019 *tae nRM praying mantis mantis ; shrimp consonant metathesis *rVt > tVr in Nuclear Meto; glottal stop insertion in Meto The source of the initial element in Meto currently unknown. This element also has irregular Ro'is k = Nuclear Meto r correspondence. This is the reverse pattern to what would be expected for PMeto *r. Creatures, bugs, insects, creature taxon telu_tae (Fox 2016b:13,55) akaʔtaʔe ataʔraʔe ataʔlaʔe (M:31) °akatae astatae CTimor 1020 *tafa Rote sword, machete sword ; machete Warfare and hunting tafa (J:586) tafa tafa tafa tafa tafa tafa tafa-ʔ tafa-ʔ taha (Mo:178) kawa ETimor, SW Maluku 1021 *taha *na-taha PRM answer answer **taRa pre-RM *R > *h (also in *klaha and *noh) regular *h > Ø /a_a in Rote Speech and language na-taa (J:580f) na-taa na-taa na-taa na-taa na-taa na-taa na-taa na-taa na-taha ta-taah tala hataa hataan (Mo:81) Helong, ETimor 1022 *tahi Rote winnow winnow *tapi *t > d in nRote Food and drink daʔi (J:71) daʔi daʔi dai dai daʔi ɗaʔi tai tai tahiŋ 1023 *tai₁ *tai-k PRM belly, stomach, guts belly ; stomach *taqi ‘faeces, excrement’ *a > e in Ro'is Amarasi and all Rote lects except Tii (sporadic assimilation to following i) *tai₂ Body, torso tei-k (J:612f) tei-ʔ tei-k tei-ʔ tei-ʔ tei-ʔ tei-ʔ tei-k tai-k tei-ʔ tei-ʔ tei tei-f tai-f tai-n (M:623) tain 1024 *tai₂ PRM faeces, excrement faeces ; excrement *taqi *a > e in lects except Tii (sporadic assimilation to following i) *tai₁ Body, internal organs tei (J:612f) tei tei tei tei tei tei tei tai tei tei tei tei tei {2} na-teʔi tei (M:623) tai tai tee-n (Mo:183) 1025 *tai₃ Rote stick to stick to Spatial relations tai (J:587) tai tai tai tai tai tai tai tai tai Helong 1026 *tairua CERM half half *t > h in nRote second part from *dua ‘two’ Quantity hailua (J:155) hailua hailua hailua hairua n-tainua {2} tainua tailuaŋ Helong 1027 *tais PRM cloth, sarong cloth ; sarong *tapis ‘loincloth (?)’ *p > Ø (Meto Ø could be regular from *p, but we would still expect ʔ in Termanu) Clothing and grooming tai_sai-k (J:589) tais tais tais tais tais (M:532) tais tais (Mo:178) 1028 *taku PRM fear fear ; scared *takut k-8 Emotions and values na-ka-ta~taʔu {2} taʔu-s {3} ma-ka-ta~taʔu-k (J:604f) na-ka-ta~taʔu na-ka-ta~taʔu na-ka-ta~taku na-ta~taʔu na-ka-ta~taʔu na-ka-ta~taʔu-k na-ʔa-ta~taʔu-ʔ {2} na-tau-ʔ {3} na-ma-tau na-ʔa-ta~taʔu-ʔ {2} na-tau-ʔ {3} na-ma-tau — {2} — {3} na-ma-tau na-m|tau na-m|tau {2} na-m|taus na-m|tau {2} na-m|tausan {3} n-haka|tau {4} ma|taus (M:332) hataʔuk (Mo:183) ─kaʔuk medaʔu 1029 *talaɗa PRM middle, centre middle ; centre *t > k in Dengka regular *ɗ > **l /*l_ in Meto (and Helong) Spatial relations talada (J:590) talada talada talada talada talada talaɗa kalaɗa-ʔ talaɗa-ʔ talaɗa-ʔ tnana|ʔ tnana|ʔ, tnana-f au tnana-k (M:561) tnana|ʔ hlala klara-n (Mo:109) telora Helong, ETimor, Flores, Hawu-Dhao, Maluku 1030 *tales Rote taro Colocasia esculenta taro *taləs *ə > *e /_# (expect *ə > a in wRote) Plants, edible plants, tuber tale (J:591, Fox 1991:257) tale tale tale tale tale ta~tale-k ta~tales tale talas (Mo:179) 1031 *tali PRM rope, cord, twine, string rope *talih Tools tali (J:591) tali tali tali tali tali tali tali-ʔ tali-ʔ tani tani tani (M:538) tani tali tali(n) (Mo:179) 1032 *talin PRM money money This could be a borrowing, but a likely source language has not been identified. Possession tali_doi-k (J:591) tali_doi-ʔ tali_doi-k tali_doi-k tali_doi-ʔ tali_doi-k tali_ɗoi-k tali_ɗoi-ʔ tali_ɗoi-ʔ tanin talin Helong 1033 *tama₁ PMeto enter enter *tama ‘enter, penetrate; bold, of persons’ Motion n-tama n-tama an-tama (M:536) n-tama tama tama (Mo:179) ETimor 1034 *tama₂ Rote appropriate, suitable, right; fit together fit together *tama(q) Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct both *tamaq and *tama as ‘disjuncts’ with almost identical semantics. The Termanu form is included as evidence for both. Emotions and values tama (J:592) tama tama tama tama tama tama tama tama 1035 *tamae Rote bedbug bedbug **tamayuŋ pre-RM I have reconstructed antepenultimate PRM *a primarily on the basis of external evidence and the fact that this is the most common antepenultimate vowel in PRM. This means proposing antepenultimate *a > i in Landu. This sound change finds some support from PRM sumanə-k ‘soul’ > Landu simane-ʔ which also shows a shift of an antepenultimate vowel to i. In both words this may be sporadic assimilation to the previous apical consonant. Creatures, bugs, insects, louse, creature taxon mae-k (J:340) mae-ʔ mae-k mae-ʔ timae-ʔ mae-ʔ mae-k mae-k mai-ʔ mai-ʔ kmaeŋ hmaeŋ Helong, Flores 1036 *tamo CERM ancestral name name, ancestral *o > a in Meto Social and political relations, religion and belief tamo-k (Fox 2016b:53) tama-f au tama-k (M:536) (On:464) Flores, Sumba, Sulawesi 1037 *tamu *na-tamu PRM close the mouth, chew close mouth ; chew *tamu PCEMP. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) only give Motu tamu-tamu ‘smack the lips while eating’ and Uruava tamu ‘eat’ and the Termanu form as evidence for their reconstruction. Food and drink na-tamu {2} tamu~tamu (J:593) na-tamu na-tamu na-tamu na-tamu na-tamu na-tamu na-tamu na-tamu na-tamu na-tamu (M:227) na-tamu 1038 *tamba₁ CER throw throw Motion tapa (J:599) tapa tapa tapa tapa taba (Mo:177) toba ETimor, Bima, Maluku, Sulawesi 1039 *tamba₂ PRM mend, patch patch ; join *tambal Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct a number of formally and semantically similar forms including: *tambəj ‘tie up, bind tightly’, and *tambəl ‘patch’. Actions tapa (J:599f) tapa tapa tapa tapa tampa tamba tamba tamba n-tapa (M:539) tapa tabar 1040 *tambele PRM suspend, hang spread out ; fly (v.) ; hang Actions pele~pele {2} pe~pele {3} pele (J:478, Fox 2016b:45) pele~pele pele~pele pele~pele pele~pele mpele~mpele mbele~mbele mbele~mbele {2} na-ta-mbele mbele~mbele {2} na-ta-mbele na-tpene na-kpene na-tpene tabele (Mo:177) ETimor 1041 *tana|ʔ PnMeto thorn thorn **tara-k pre-Meto Plants, plant parts tanaʔ tarak, taran (Mo:180) karna ai taran (On:482) ETimor, SW Maluku, Sumba, CTimor 1042 *tana₁ PRM cover cover Spatial relations ta~tana {2} tana (J:593) ta~tana ta~tana ta~tana ta~tana ta~tana ta~tana ta~tana ta~tana na-taan tuŋa ketaŋa (On:474) Helong, Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 1043 *tana₂ *tana-k Rote crispy, dried out crisp ; dried **taŋa pre-RM Sense perception tana-k (J:593) tana-ʔ tana-k tana-ʔ tana-ʔ tana-k tana-k tana-ʔ tana-ʔ taŋa Helong 1044 *tana₃ PMeto ask, inquire ask *utaña PRM had two reflexes of *utaña: *tane and *tana. Both are still attested in Molo. *tane Speech and language na-tana na-tana na-tana (M:537) 1045 *tane₁ Rote mud mud *tanəq ‘earth, soil, land’ regular *ə > e /_q# Physical world tane (J:594) tane tane tane tane tane tane tane tane 1046 *tane₂ *na-tane PRM ask, inquire ask *utaña *a > *e /*C+palatal_ PRM had two reflexes of *utaña: *tane and *tana. Both are still attested in Molo. *tana Speech and language na-tane (J:594) na-tane na-tane na-tane na-tane na-tane na-tane na-tane na-tane ma-tane-n (M:537) 1047 *tanee PRM contain (liquid) contain Spatial relations na-ta-nee (J:384f) na-ta-nee na-ta-nee na-ta-nee na-ta-nee na-ta-nee na-ta-nee na-ta-nee na-ta-nee na-tnee (M:562) tenae Hawu-Dhao 1048 *tani PnRote weep, cry; mourn complain ; weep *taŋis Emotions and values na-ma-tani (J:595) na-ma-tani na-ma-tani na-ma-tani na-ma-tani 1049 *tande *ma-tande, *tande-k PRM sharp sharp *tazəm *z > *nd (expect *ɗ); *ə > *e /_# (expect *ə > a in wRote, possibly *ə > *a > e) Blust and Trussel only give cognates in Taiwan and western MP languages. This, combined, with the irregular sound changes which must be posited, may indicate that this form is not a direct inheritance from PMP, but a subsequent borrowing. Sense perception ma-tane {2} tane-k {3} na-ma-tane (J:594) ma-tane ma-tane ma-tane ma-tande ma-tane ma-tande tande-ʔ tande-ʔ 1050 *taŋɡa PRM jasmine tree, Indian cork tree Millingtonia hortensis |ui{Millingtonia hortensis} Plants, tree, plant taxon taŋa (J:595) taŋa taŋa taŋa taŋɡa taŋɡa taŋɡa taŋɡa 1051 *tao PRM put, place, do put ; do *taRuq ‘store, put away for safekeeping, hide valuables; to place a bet in gambling; lay an egg’ *u > *o Spatial relations tao (J:595) tao tao tao tao tao tao tao tao n-tao n-tao n-tao {2} tao-s (M:542) talu tau (Mo:183) 1052 *tara *ta~tara PRM adze adze *taRaq ‘hewing with an adze’ *R = *r (expect Ø) Tools ta~tala (J:590) ta~tala ta~tala ta~tala ta~tara ta~tala ta~tara ta~talas ta~taras tan~tana 1053 *taruku PRM chiton chiton *taduku PCEMP (own reconstruction) k-9 Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon luʔu (J:337) luʔu luku ruku-ʔ luʔu ruʔu ruʔu tnuʔu kruku 1054 *tasa *ma-tasa-k PRM ripe, cooked ripe ; cooked *tasak Food and drink tasa-k {2} na-ma-tasa (J:601f) tasa-ʔ tasa-k tasa-ʔ tasa-ʔ tasa-k tasa-k tasa-ʔ tasa-ʔ m|tasa|ʔ {2} meʔe m|tasa|ʔ m|tasa|ʔ (M:332) a-m|tasa|ʔ tasa tasak, tasan (Mo:181) maɖasa 1055 *tasi PRM sea, ocean sea ; ocean *tasik ‘sea, saltwater’ Physical world, sea tasi (J:601) tasi tasi tasi tasi tasi tasi tasi-ʔ tasi tasi-ʔ tasi tasi tasi (M:540) tasi tasi tasi (Mo:181) kahi 1056 *tata Rote clap, beat, hack split ; chop *tabtab Actions tata (J:602) tata tata tata tata tata tata tata 1057 *tatə nRM boy, older sibling boy ; sibling, older *t > ʔ /V_V in most of Rote People, kin taʔe_ana-k (J:586) taʔe_ana-ʔ taʔe_ana-k tate_anaʔ {2} tate tate_anaʔ {2} tate taʔe_ana-k taʔe_ana-k tata-f tata-f tata-f oli-f {2} an-maʔ-oil tata=n {3} tata-n (M:541) tata|ʔ tate, tata {2} kaka SW Maluku 1058 *tati Rote cut, chop cut ; chop Actions tati (J:602) tati tati tati tati tati tati tati tati dati Helong 1059 *taum *ka-taum PRM indigo plant and dye indigo *taRum Plants, useful plants, plant taxon tau-k (J:604) tau-ʔ tau-k tau-ʔ tau-ʔ tau-k tau-k, tau ɗoo tau-ʔ tau-ʔ ʔ|taum (M:543) taum=aa taluŋ 1060 *taun PRM year year *taqun ‘year, season’ *a > e in nRote PwRM *toon Time teu-k (J:627) teu-ʔ teu-k teu-ʔ teu-ʔ teu-k teu-k too(-ʔ) too toon toon toon (M:570) toan taun 1061 *tea PRM arrive, until, the point that arrive *a > e in all Rote and some Meto (sporadic assimilation) I have reconstructed final *a rather than *e as *a > e can be motivated as sporadic assimilation while the reverse sound change would be unmotivated. Motion tee (J:607) teʔe tee tee tee tee tee tee n-tea n-tea, n-tee n-tee, n-tia (M:544,554) tea n-tee, ntea toʔo (Mo:188) tii ETimor 1062 *teas PRM heartwood of a tree, hard, durable core of wood; ironwood tree heartwood *təRas *a > e /_# in wRM Plants, plant parts tea, teas (J:608) tea tea tea tea tea tea tee-ʔ tee-ʔ teas teas, tees (M:544) teas telas toos (Mo:188) 1063 *teɓes PRM TRUE TRUE *ɓ > ʔ in Termanu and Bokai Emotions and values (teʔe~)teʔe (J:77) (tebe~)tebe (teʔe~)teʔe (tebe~)tebe, te~tebe-ʔ (tebe~)tebe, te~tebes=a (tebe~)tebe, te~tebes=a (teɓe~)teɓe, te~teɓe-k (tebe~)tebe, te~tebes=a (teɓe~)teɓe, te~teɓes=a te~teɓes {2} teɓe~teɓes tebe {2} na-ʔtebe teeb {2} (M:544) tebes tebes (Mo:183) Helong, ETimor 1064 *teɓi PRM break into pieces break ; crumble up *təbiq ‘split off, break off a piece, as in breaking off a section of betel nut’ PWMP *b > *ɓ /V_V *ɓ > b ~ ʔ in Termanu, Korbafo and Bokai Actions tebi {2} teʔi (J:608, 613) tebi {2} teʔi tebi {2} teʔi tebi tebi {2} tebi tebi teɓi tebi n-tebi n-tebi (M:544) teben tohi(k) (Mo:187) 1065 *teɗe Rote crush with fingernail press ; crush *tindəs ‘crush lice with the fingernails’ *nd > *ɗ; *i > *e (also in eastern varieties of Malay) *ə > *e /_# (expect *ə > a in wRote, possibly *ə > *a > e) Some eastern Malays (e.g. Kupang Malay, Ambon Malay) have tendes ‘press’ also with *i > e. Hawu also shows *i > e. Body tede (J:609) tede tede tede tede tede teɗe teɗe teɗe təɗa (On:493) 1066 *tee Rote spear spear **təRə pre-RM Warfare and hunting tee (J:605) tee tee tee tee tee tee tee tee kere too SW Maluku, CTimor 1067 *tefe CER broken, tired broken ; tired Actions tefe (J:612) tefe tefe tefe tefe tehen Helong 1068 *tefu PRM sugarcane Saccharum officinarum sugarcane *təbuh Plants, edible tefu (J:612) tefu tefu tefu tefu tefu tefu tefu tefu tefu tefu tefu tefu (M:545) tefu tihu touhu (Mo:189) keu 1069 *teka PRM call, greet call ; tell ; greet k-10 Speech and language na-teʔa (J:608) na-teʔa na-teʔa na-teka na-teʔa na-teʔa na-teʔa na-tea na-tea n-teka n-teka n-teka {2} {3} (M:546) teka Helong 1070 *teke *ka-teke PRM gecko gecko *təktək k-5 *ə > *e /_# (expect *ə > a in wRM, possibly *ə > *a > e in wRM) onomatopoeia Creatures, bugs, creature taxon teke (J:614) teke teke teke teʔe teke teke teke teke teke ʔ|teke ʔ|teke (M:547) ktokeʔ tokeʔ teki (Mo:183) 1071 *tekə PRM staff, walking stick staff ; stick, walking *təkən ‘downward pressure; bamboo punting pole’ k-8 Social and political relations te~teʔe-k {2} te~teʔe (J:610f) te~teʔe-ʔ te~teʔe-k te~teke-ʔ te~teʔe-ʔ te~teʔe_ai-k te~teʔe_ai te~tea-s te~tea-s te~tea-s tea|s tee|s, tea|s (M:544,552) tnikan tikan {2} hnikan ai katoʔan 1072 *telu PRM three three *təlu Quantity telu (J:615) telu telu telu telu telu telu telu telu tenu tenu tenu (M:550) tilu tolu (Mo:183) telu wokelu 1073 *tema₁ CERM eagle eagle *a > e /_# in Meto Creatures, birds, creature taxon te~tema (J:617) te~tema te~tema te~tema te~tema teme teme teme (M:548) tem/lusi Helong 1074 *tema₂ *ka-tema-k, *teme~teme PRM whole, entire whole ; entire *a > e /_# in wRM Quantity tema~tema {2} ka-tema-k (J:616) tema~tema {2} ka-tema-ʔ tema~tema {2} ka-tema-k tema~tema {2} ka-tema-ʔ tema~tema {2} ka-tema-ʔ tema~tema {2} ka-tema-k tema~tema {2} ka-tema-k teme~teme, teme-ʔ teme~teme, teme-ʔ ʔ|teme (M:548) ŋae ktemaʔ tema naktomak (Mo:188) tema (dJ:138) ke~keme ketəme Helong, ETimor, Wetar, SW Maluku, Flores, Hawu-Dhao 1075 *temə *na-temə PRM accustomed to accustomed *təmən Reconstructed with final *a, but this seems unable to account for the reflexes of the final vowels in a number of languages. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) list cognates under their ‘noise’ section. (Dempwolff 1938:135) Social and political relations na-teme (J:618) na-teme na-teme na-teme na-teme na-teme na-teme na-tema na-tema na-teem teman toman (Mo:188) tima 1076 *temba Rote sardine sardine *tamban PWMP *a > *e Possibly a borrowing from Malay tembaŋ. Jonker also gives Makassar and Bugis tembaŋ. Creatures, aquatic creatures, fish iʔa tepa (J:623) tepa tepa tepa tepa tempa temba temba 1077 *tena₁ PRM sink, submerge sink ; submerge Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct *təñəj ‘sink, set (sun)’ on the basis of the Termanu reflex (glossed ‘sink, set (of the sun)’) and a Cebuano reflex. But a regular reflex Termanu of this form would have a final e rather than a. Motion tena {2} tena-k {3} te~tena-k {4} na-tena {5} na-ka-tena-k (J:619) tena {2} tena-ʔ tena {2} tena-k tena {2} tena-ʔ tena {2} tena-ʔ tena {2} tena-k tena {2} tena-k tena {2} tena tena n-tena n-tena denes {2} dene Helong 1078 *tena₂ PRM alight, land alight *t > n in Kotos Amarasi *a > e /_# in Meto Creatures, birds tena (J:619) tena tena tena tena tena tena tena n-nene tene 1079 *tena₃ PnMeto calm down, quieten calm *tənəŋ ‘calm, still, as the surface of water’ PWMP Sense perception na-ʔ|tena|ʔ (M:548) tene 1080 *tene PRM kind of mangrove, with bark used for dyeing Ceriops species Ceriops ; mangrove *təŋəR *ə > *e (expect *ə > a in wRM, possibly *ə > *a > e in wRM) Plants, tree, plant taxon tene (J:620) tene tene tene tene tene tene tene tene tene (M:549) 1081 *teni PMeto again again Time n-teniʔ teniʔ, n-teni n-teni (M:549) teni (Mo:184) teni ETimor 1082 *tenu PRM weave (cloth, baskets) weave *tənun Actions tenu (J:623) tenu tenu tenu tenu tenu tenu tenu tenu n-tenu n-tenu (M:550) tinu kenna 1083 *tendə *tendə-k PRM ribcage, lungs ribs ; breast ; lungs ; heart Body, torso tene-k (J:621) tene-ʔ tene-k tene-ʔ tende dui-ʔ tende-ʔ tere-ʔ tene-k tende-k tenda-ʔ tenda-ʔ tenda-ʔ tere-f teka-f teka-n (M:546) teek noo-n {2} teek fua-n teka-n teka-k 1084 *teŋɡa PnRote hand span span ; hand span *haŋɡa Spatial relations teŋa (J:621) teŋa teŋa teŋa teka teŋɡa teŋɡa 1085 *teri *oo_teri-k Rote giant bamboo Dendrocalamus species bamboo, giant Dendrocalamus *təriŋ ‘bamboo species’ Plants, useful plants, bamboo, plant taxon oo_teli-k (J:615) oo_teli-ʔ oo_teli-k oo_teli-ʔ oo_teri-ʔ oo_teri-k oo_teli-ʔ oo_teri-ʔ 1086 *tesa CERM setting (of sun/moon) sunset Physical world, sky tesa neon n-tees n-tesan (M:552) 1087 *teta PRM cut into small pieces, mince cut ; mince *a > e /_# in Molo Actions te~teta-ta~tata (J:625) te~teta-ta~tata te~teta-ta~tata te~teta-ta~tata te~teta-ta~tata te~teta-ta~tata te~teta lutuʔ te~teta-ta~tata n-teta n-tete (M:553) teta {2} tetas tetak (Mo:184) Helong, ETimor 1088 *tete *ka-tete CERM dam, dyke dam ; dyke ; reef ; ridge I have reconstructed the meaning ‘dam, dyke’ as this accounts for the semantics in both Hawu and the Rote lects. The shift to ‘reef’ appears to have spread by contact between Bokai, Rikou, Amarasi and Helong (with subsequent shift of ‘reef’ to ‘ridge’ in Amarasi). This scenario seems more likely than the alternate in which shift to ‘dam, dyke’ occurred in Hawu and other Rote lects. Note also that Jonker (1908:670) also gives unu-k/-ʔ as ‘reef which is visible at low tide’ for all Rote languages (including Oepao) except Bokai and Rikou. Physical world, sea tete {2} na-ka-tete (J:626) tete — {2} — {3} tete-k tete tete {2} — {3} tete-ʔ k|tete|ʔ teten titi Helong, Hawu-Dhao 1089 *tetu PRM upright, midday upright ; midday The reflexes meaning ‘midday’ outside of RM reflect something like **dətu or **ndətu. Spatial relations na-tetu {2} ledo=a na-ma-tetu {3} tetu~tetu {4} tetu-k (J:626f) na-tetu {2} na-ma-tetu na-tetu {2} na-ma-tetu na-tetu {2} na-ma-tetu na-tetu {2} na-ma-tetu na-tetu {2} na-ma-tetu na-tetu {2} na-ma-tetu na-tetu {2} na-ma-tetu na-tetu {2} na-ma-tetu na-tetu {2} na-m|tetu na-tetu {2} manas na-m|tetun (M:553) titu {2} lelo ditu loro natutun (Mo:133) nətu loɗo Helong, ETimor, Flores, Hawu-Dhao 1090 *teu *ka-teu PRM pigeon, dove pigeon ; dove **lakateRu pre-RM Creatures, birds, creature taxon ka|teu (J:223) ka|teu ka|teu ka|teu ka|teu ka|teu teu teu teu too/tiu tiluʔ lakateu (Mo:124) Helong, ETimor, SW Maluku, Maluku 1091 *təlo *təlo-k PRM egg egg *qatəluR ‘egg; testicle’ *ə > o in nRote; *l > n ~ k in Nuclear Meto (perhaps partly via intermediate irregular PMeto *l > *r before *r > k) *u > *o /_*R# Creatures, birds tolo-k (J:641) tolo-ʔ tolo-k tolo-ʔ tolo-ʔ tolo-ʔ tolo-k tolo-k tolo-k telo-ʔ telo-ʔ teno|ʔ teno|ʔ, teko|ʔ teko|ʔ (M:550) teno|ʔ tilun tolu-n {2} tolon (Mo:188) thelu telon 1092 *tiam PRM oyster oyster *tiRəm *ə > *a (expect *ə > e in nRote) Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon ti~tia-k (J:629) ti~tia-ʔ ti~tia-k ti~tia-ʔ ti~tia-ʔ ti~tia-k ti~tia-k ti~tia-ʔ ti~tia-ʔ tiam tiaŋ 1093 *tiɓa *ka-tiɓa-k PRM bamboo container bamboo container Tools tiba-k tiba-k tiɓa-k tiba-ʔ tiɓa-ʔ ʔ|tiba|ʔ 1094 *tiɗo PRM kind of tuber tuber Plants, edible plants, tuber tido {2} tido-k (J:629) tido {2} tido-ʔ tido {2} tido-k tido {2} tido-ʔ tido {2} tido-ʔ tido {2} tido-k tiɗo {2} tiɗo-k tiɗo {2} tiɗo-ʔ tiɗo {2} tiɗo-ʔ tiro|k (M:557) 1095 *tii *tii-k Rote sea urchin sea urchin **tiRi pre-RM Although the reflexes here are similar to those under *k|teom (**tayum), they cannot be straightforwardly combined as the sound correspondences are not regular and both Tetun forms tii and teon would be unexplained if this were done. Possibly connected with PWMP *təRi ‘kind of small fish’, but the semantic shift seems unlikely. *k|teom Creatures, aquatic tii-k (J:628) tii-ʔ tii-k tii-k tii-k tii-ʔ tii-ʔ tii-ʔ tii (Mo:185) ETimor, Tanimbar 1096 *ti(ʔ)o Rote goatfish, family Mullidae goatfish *tiqaw Whether or not the Termanu form attests a medial glottal stop affects whether this should be reconstructed or not. Similarly, depending on the form of possible cognates in other Rote languages it may be possible to posit medial *h instead of *ʔ. Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon tio {2} iʔa_tiʔo (Fox 2016b:56, J:632) 1097 *tila *tila-k PRM vagina vagina *tila Body, limbs, legs, genitalia tila-k (J:630) tila-ʔ tila-k tila-ʔ tila-ʔ tila-k tila-k tila-ʔ tila-ʔ tini-f tina-f tina|ʔ (M:558) 1098 *timi *timi-k PRM chin, jaw chin *timid *i > u in Amanuban and Kusa-Manea Body, head, mouth timi-k (J:630) timi-ʔ timi-k timi-ʔ timi dai-ʔ timi-ʔ timi-k timi-k timi-ʔ timi-ʔ ta~timu-f tai_timu-n tool_timi-n timi-f timir (Mo:186) 1099 *timu₁ CER east wind wind, east *timuR Physical world, weather ani timu (J:630) 1100 *timu₂ *ka-timu-k PRM cucumber Cucumis sativa L. papaya ; watermelon ; cucumber *qatimun Plants, edible plants, vegetables ti~timu-k (J:630) ti~timu-ʔ ti~timu-ʔ ti~timu-k (ti~timu-k ?) ti~timu-ʔ ook_ti͡umu|k oka_ʔ|timu|k ook_, okan_ (M:401) saah-timun, tium-takan 1101 *tina Rote dry field which is replanted every year field ; garden **tiŋaR (Mills 2010:285) *a > e in Termanu, Korbafo, Rikou, Oenale, and Dela Plants, edible plants, crops tina, tine (J:630) tina, tine tina tina tine tina tina tine tine tinan (Mo:186) kirna tikan ETimor, SW Maluku, CTimor 1102 *tino PRM peer, mirror peer ; visit ; mirror *tindaw ‘see in the distance’ *nd > *n *t > n in Meto I have placed the Meto forms here rather than under *tiro as the medial *n provides a potential motivation for irregular initial *t > n. *tiro Sense perception ti~tino {2} ti~tino-k {3} ti~tino-k {4} ti~tino (J:631f) ti~tino {2} ti~tino {4} ti~tino ti~tino {2} ti~tino-k {4} ti~tino ti~tino {2} tino_ao {4} ti~tino ti~tino {2} tino_ao {4} ti~tino ti~tino {2} (ti~tino-s ?) {4} ti~tino ti~tino {4} (ti~tino ?) ti~tino ʔ|ninu|ʔ ʔninoʔ {2} noe ʔninoʔ, koe ʔninoʔ (M:371) 1103 *tiŋɡa *tiŋɡa-k, *na-tiŋɡa PRM heel heel *tikəd *k > *ŋɡ; *ə > *a Body, limbs, legs ei_tiŋa-k {2} na-tiŋa {3} tiŋa (J:631) ei_tiŋa-ʔ {2} na-tiŋa ei_tiŋa-k {2} na-tiŋa ei_tiŋa-ʔ {2} na-tiŋa ei_tika-ʔ {2} na-tika ei_tiŋɡa-k {2} na-tiŋɡa ei_tiŋɡa-k {2} na-tiŋɡa ei_tiŋɡa-ʔ {2} na-tiŋɡa ei_tiŋɡa-ʔ {2} na-tiŋɡa tiki-f tika-f {2} na-tika tika-n {2} {3} na-tiik (M:556) 1104 *tiri *tiri~tiri Rote drip drip *tiRis ‘drip, ooze through, leak’ *R = *r (expect Ø) Motion tili~tili (J:630) tili~tili tili~tili tili~tili tiri~tiri tili~tili tiri~tiri tili~tili tiri~tiri 1105 *tiro Rote mirror, visit peer ; visit ; mirror *tindaw ‘see in the distance’ *nd > *r *tino Sense perception tiro_ao ti~tilo-s tilo ti~tiro {2} tiro ti~tilo_ao tiro_ao 1106 *tisa nRM pour pour *a > e in Bokai, Tii and Rikou; *a > i in Bilbaa and Meto Actions ti~tisa-k (J:633) ti~tisa-ʔ ti~tise-k ti~tisi-ʔ ti~tise-ʔ ti~tisa-k ti~tise-k n-tisi {2} na-tisi {3} na-m|tisi n-tesi, n-tosi, n-tisi {2} na-m|tisi (M:559) tiis tisi (Mo:186) Helong, ETimor 1107 *titi Rote drip drip *titis ‘drip, ooze’ Physical world, water titi (J:633) titi titi titi titi titi titi titi 1108 *toɓi PRM hot, heated up hot *i > e in Meto Sense perception ma-tobi-k {2} na-tobi {3} tobi (J:637) ma-tobi-ʔ ma-tobi-ʔ ma-tobi-ʔ ma-tobi-k ma-toɓi-k ma-tobi-ʔ ma-toɓi-ʔ na-tobe 1109 *toɗi PRM protuberance, stick out protuberance ; stick out consonant metathesis *tVd > dVt in Ba'a for the first sense; vowel height harmony *i > e /oC_ for first sense in nRote and Meto The Meto forms are Historic compound of *ka-ndou ‘nape of the neck’ + *toɗi. Spatial relations tode {2} todi {3} nisi todi-k (J:637) tode {2} todi {2} todi dote {2} todi {2} toɗi {2} toɗi ko/tore-f ʔ|ko/tole-k (M:225) 1110 *tofa₁ nRM weed (field) weed (v.) Plants, agriculture tofa (J:638) tofa tofa tofa tofa tofa n-tofa n-tofa (M:566) topa Helong 1111 *tofa₂ PRM quarrel quarrel Social and political relations tofa na-tofa na-tofa n-tofa n-tofan (M:566) 1112 *toka Rote impede, against impede k-8/9 Spatial relations toʔa (J:635) toʔa toʔa toka toʔa toʔa toʔa toʔa toʔa toka toka tuki Helong, Flores, Bima, Hawu-Dhao 1113 *toki PRM dig out dig out k-8 Actions toʔi (J:639) toʔi toʔi toki toʔi toʔi toʔi toʔi n-toi tuki Helong 1114 *toko Rote beat, knock beat ; knock *tuktuk ‘knock, pound, beat; crush’ k-6 *u > *o Actions toko (J:639) toko toko toko toʔo toko toko toʔo toʔo 1115 *toʔis CERM horn (instrument) horn (instrument) ; triton shell Speech and language toʔi-k (J:639) toʔi-ʔ toʔi-k toi-ʔ toʔis toʔi-k to͡iʔis toʔis toʔis (M:223) toʔis toʔis 1116 *toʔo PRM man, male uncle, maternal ; brother, older *tau Ø > *ʔ The forms combined with huu- (see *huu) ‘base, source, origin, beginning’ was probably ‘man’. Further evidence for this comes from Oenale which has tou huu-ʔ ‘maternal uncle’ (see *tou) in which the first element is identical to the word for ‘man’. Thus, for instance, Termanu toʔo huu-k original was ‘man of origin’. The woman is the source of life in Timorese thinking, and thus the mother’s brother has an important role as the representative of the wife-giving maternal relatives. *tou People, kin toʔo-k {2} toʔo huu-k (J:644) toʔo toʔo-k too-ʔ, too huu-ʔ toʔo=na toʔo toʔo toʔo-k toʔo toʔo-k too huu-ʔ toʔo tooʔ 1117 *toŋɡo nRM meet together meet ; come together Social and political relations na-toŋo (J:643) na-toŋo na-toko na-toŋɡo na-toŋɡo na-toko {2} noe toko-n (M:568) 1118 *tou PRM person man ; person *tau ‘person, human being’ *a > *o (sporadic assimilation) *u > o in Meto (probably motivated by the rarity of the sequence ou) *toʔo People tou-k (J:645) tou-ʔ tou-k tou-ʔ tou-ʔ tou-ʔ tou-k tou-k tou-ʔ tou-ʔ {2} tou huu-ʔ tou-ʔ too too too (M:564) too 1119 *tua₁ Rote big, size big ; size *tuqah ‘old, of people; mature, as fruit’ Spatial relations ma-tua {2} tua {3} na-ma-tua {4} na-ka-tu~tua {5} ma-ka-tuas (J:647f) ma-tua {5} ma-ka-tua-s ma-tua {5} ma-ka-tuas ma-tua {5} ma-ka-tua-s ma-tua ma-tua {5} ma-ka-tuas {5} ma-ka-tua-s {5} ma-ʔa-tua {5} ma-ʔa-tua tuan tuan (Mo:189) 1120 *tua₂ PRM lontar palm Borassus flabellifer palm, lontar *tuak ‘palm wine’ Plants, tree, palm, plant taxon tua (J:647) tua tua tua tua tua tua tua-ʔ tua-ʔ tua|ʔ tua|ʔ (M:572) tua tua (Mo:189) due 1121 *tua₃ *tua-k PRM lord, master lord ; owner ; person *qatuan Both Blust and Trussel (ongoing) and Wolff (2010:960) reconstruct the meaning as ‘deity’, but I do not consider this well supported by the non-Oceanic reflexes. Instead, ‘lord’ was probably the original meaning with expansion to ‘deity’ in POc and occasionally also in other languages. It is also unclear to me whether initial *qa is supported outside of Oceanic. Social and political relations, people lama/tua-k (J:275) lama/tua-ʔ lama/tua-k lama/tua-ʔ rama/tua-ʔ lama/tua-k lama/tua-k lama/tua-ʔ lama/tua-ʔ tua-n {2} tua|f {3} tua tua-n {2} tua|f {3} tua uim tua-f {2} ma-ʔusi-ʔ =ma ma-tua-ʔ (M:573) lamtua tuak am_tuak (Mo:189) 1122 *tudui nRM owl owl d-2 The first element in Meto reflexes is from *ŋɡuu ‘howl’. Clark (2011:331) reconstructs POc *drudru(r,R) ‘owl’. onomatopoeia Creatures, birds, creature taxon tu~turui-ʔ tu~tului-k tu~turui-k ku/truu ku/truʔu ku/tlui, ku/tluu (M:242,403) 1123 *tuɗu PRM point at, point out; give directions point *tuzuq *t > r in Meto (likely sporadic assimilation; *tuɗu > PMeto *dudu) Sense perception na-tudu (J:650) na-tudu na-tudu na-tudu na-tudu na-tudu na-tuɗu na-tuɗu na-tuɗu na-ruru-ʔ {2} k|ruru-f n-ruru {2} na-ruru-ʔ {3} k|ruru-f n-lulu (M:650) tulu hatudu (Mo:83) pe-ʄuʄu 1124 *tufa PRM plant with roots that are pounded and put in rivers to stun fish Derris elliptica |ui{Derris elliptica} *tuba *a > e /_# in wRM Plants, useful plants tufa (J:650) tufa tufa tufa tufa tufa tufa tufe tufe (M:573) 1125 *tufu PRM punch punch ; hit *tumbuk ‘punch, hit, pound’ *mb > (*b) > *f *u > a in Rote; *t > t ~ nd in Termanu, Ba'a and Dengka; *t > t ~ n in Bilbaa Actions tufa, ndufa (J:650,426) tufa tufa tufa, nufa tufa tufa, ndufa tufa tufa, ndufa n-tufu n-tufu (M:574) tupu (dJ:140) 1126 *tui₁ PRM line, carve stripe ; carve ; write *t > d in Rote Speech and language dui-k (J:105) dui-ʔ dui-k dui-ʔ dui-k ɗui-k ɗui n-tui n-tui n-tui (M:574) tuis tui {2} tuik (Mo:190) Helong, ETimor 1127 *tui₂ Rote tui tree ; mangrove trumpet tree Dolichandrone spathacea |ui{Dolichandrone spathacea} *tui Plants, tree, plant taxon tui (J:652, Fox 2016b:58) tui tui tui tui tui tui tui tui 1128 *tuin CERM follow follow **tuir pre-RM Motion tui (J:650f) na-tuin na-tuin na-tuin (M:575) tuiŋ tuir (Mo:190) ʧoi, ʧui (dJ:139) nui Helong, ETimor, Wetar, Hawu-Dhao, Maluku 1129 *tuka *tuka-ʔ PwRM short, truncated short ; truncated k-5 *a > u in wRote (sporadic assimilation?) Spatial relations tuku-ʔ tuku-ʔ tuka|ʔ tuka|ʔ (M:575) tuk/leke Helong 1130 *tuke *tuke-k PRM bamboo vessel bamboo container *tukil PWMP k-5 *i > *e Jonker (1908:652) identifies the reflexes as being borrowings from Bugis tokka, but it is hard to explain final RM e under this hypothesis. Tools tuke-k (J:652) tuke-ʔ tuke-ʔ tuke-ʔ tuke-k (tuke-k ?) tuke-ʔ tuke-ʔ tuke|ʔ tuke|ʔ (M:575) au toka 1131 *tuku₁ Rote scull, row row k-6 Motion tuku (J:652) tuku tuku tuku tuʔu tuku tuku tuʔu tuʔu tuku tuku Helong, Flores, Hawu-Dhao 1132 *tuku₂ Rote throw throw k-8/9 Motion tuʔu (J:661) tuʔu (tuʔu ?) tuku tuʔu tuʔu tuʔu tuʔu tuʔu tuku (On:505) Sumba, Hawu-Dhao 1133 *tula PRM gebang palm Corypha utan palm, gebang *a > e /_# in wRM Plants, tree, palm, plant taxon tula (J:652) tula tula tula tula tula tula tule tule tune, tuni tune (M:577) klutiʔ klutiʔ Helong 1134 *tuli Rote stop by to visit when travelling stop by *tuluy Motion tuli (J:653) tuli tuli tuli tuli tuli tuli tuli tuli tuli duli 1135 *tuma PRM clothes louse louse, clothes *tumah *a > e /_# in wRM Creatures, bugs, insects, louse tuma (J:654) tuma tuma tuma tuma tuma tuma tume tume tume tume tume (M:578) tume ktumaʔ 1136 *tumbi Rote kind of tree which has soft wood tree, kind of Plants, tree, plant taxon tupi (J:657) tupi tupi tupi tumpi tumbi tumbi tumbi tuwi Bima 1137 *tumbu CERM heap, abundant heap ; abundant *tu(m)buq ‘grow, germinate, sprout’ *mb > p ~ b in Meto (forms with medial b are possibly from *tubuq with irr. *b = b) *numbu Quantity tupu~tupu {2} tu~tupu-k (J:657) tupu~tupu tupu~tupu tupu~tupu tumpu~tumpu na-ʔ|tupu, na-ʔ|tubu {2} ʔ|tubu a-ʔ|tubu (M:573) ta~tubu 1138 *tuna PRM freshwater eel eel, freshwater *tuna *a > e /_# in wRM Creatures, aquatic creatures, creature taxon tuna (J:654) tuna tuna tuna tuna tuna tuna tune tune tune, tuni tune (M:577) tuna tuna (Mo:190) thuno 1139 *tuni PRM press press Actions tuni (J:655) tuni tuni tuni tuni tuni tuni tuni tuni tuni 1140 *tunu₁ PRM stumble, stub one’s toe stumble ; stub *u > a in Koto Amarasi; *n > nd in Rikou and Landu The Meto forms are from *na-sa-tunu, while the Rote are forms from *na-ka-tunu. Motion na-ka-tunu (J:656) na-ka-tunu na-ka-tunu na-ka-tunu na-tundu na-tundu na-ka-tunu na-ka-tunu na-ʔa-tunu na-ʔa-tunu na-stunan na-stuun (M:517) tunun kedune (On:509) Helong, Sumba, Hawu-Dhao, Maluku 1141 *tunu₂ PRM roast, grill roast *tunu Food and drink tunu (J:656) tunu tunu tunu tunu tunu tunu tunu tunu n-tunuʔ (M:579) tuun tunu tunu (Mo:190) 1142 *turis PRM pigeon pea Cajanus cajan pigeon pea *tuduy ‘agati |ui{Sesbania glandiflora}’ Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct *tudiq for |ui{Sesbania grandiflora}, however Fox (1991) gives a number of reflexes from western languages including Sunda turuy and Madurese toroy which indicate final *uy. (Fox 1991:258) Ø > *s source of final *s unclear The seed pods of |ui{Sesbania grandiflora} are edible. This appears to be the basis for the semantic link between |ui{Sesbania grandiflora} and pigeon peas. Plants, edible plants, vegetables, legumes tulis (J:653) tuli-ʔ tuli-ʔ tuli-ʔ turis turis tulis turis tulis turis tu͡inis tunis tunis (M:580) tulis turis turis, tunis (Mo:191) turiana ulis tori 1143 *turu PRM overflow, leak overflow ; leak *tuduq ‘leak, drip, as a leaky roof; a drop of water’ *r > r ~ n in Meto Physical world, water tu~tulu (J:653) tu~tulu tu~tulu tu~tulu tu~turu tu~tulu tu~turu tu~tulu tu~turu turu oe tulu (M:579) oa ta~tunu|ʔ oe tunu tudu turu (Mo:191) noro 1144 *tusi₁ PRM split gebang palm leaf split *t > d in Rote Alternately we could reconstruct *ɗusi and propose irr. *ɗ > t in Meto and Helong. Under this hypothesis either the Helong or Meto form would be a borrowing. Plants, agriculture dusi (J:108) dusi dusi dusi dusi dusi ɗusi ɗusi ɗusi tuis mutiʔ {2} tuis moloʔ (M:581) tusi Helong 1145 *tusi₂ PRM rub rub Actions tusi (J:657) tusi tusi tusi tusi tusi tusi tusi tusi n-tuis n-tusi (M:581) tusi tusi Helong, ETimor 1146 *tute PRM join join *e > i in Nuclear-Rote; *e > a in Meto (and Helong) Spatial relations tuti (J:658) tuti tuti tuti tuti tuti tuti tute tute n-tuta tutan Helong 1147 *tutu PRM beat, pound beat ; pound *tuktuk ‘knock, pound, beat; crush’ Actions tutu (J:659) tutu tutu tutu tutu tutu tutu tutu tutu n-tutu tutu (M:582) tutu tutu {2} tuku (Mo:191;190) 1148 *tuu₁ *tuu-f PMeto knee knee *tuhud Body, limbs, legs tuu-f tuu-f (M:572) tuu-f tuur (Mo:191) rutuu 1149 *tuu₂ *tuu-k PnRote dry dry *tuquR ‘evaporate, dry up’ Sense perception tuu-k (J:646) tuu-ʔ tuu-k tuu-ʔ tuu-ʔ tuu-k tuu-k tuu vomeduʔu 1150 *tuur nRM sit sit Reflexes of *ŋɡ in Rote develop as though they were word medial. Meto final n attests an earlier final consonant. Tetun tuur shows that this was r, with subsequent (regular) *r > *l > n in Meto, and loss of the final consonant in nRote. Spatial relations na-ŋa-tuu-k {2} na-ŋa-tuu {3} tu~tuu-s {4} tu~tuu-k (J:647) na-ŋa-tuu-ʔ na-ŋa-tuu-k na-ka-tuu-ʔ na-tuu-ʔ na-ŋɡa-tuu-k na-ŋɡa-tuu-k n-tuun=oo-n n-tuun=oo-n tuur (Mo:191) tuur (dJ:140) ETimor, Wetar 1151 *uas PRM jicama Pachyrhizus erosus tuber ; jicama ; |ui{Pachyrhizus erosus} Ø > ʔ /#_ in Dela-Oenale Plants, edible plants, tuber uas (J:662) ua-ʔ ua-ʔ ua-ʔ uas uas uas (ʔ)uas ʔuas ʔuas uas uas (M:584) uas ETimor 1152 *uat PRM vein, tendon, muscle, palm lines vein ; palm line ; tendon ; muscle ; fortune *uRat ‘artery, blood vessel, blood vein; muscle; nerve; sinew; tendon; fibre; vein of a leaf; grain of wood; strand (of thread, rope); fishing line; root’ *urat Body, internal organs ua-k (J:662) ua-ʔ ua-k ua-ʔ ua-ʔ ua-k ua-k ua-ʔ ua-ʔ ua-ʔ ua-n ua-f {2} uat (M:583) ua-n {2} uat ulat, udat ulat uan {2} uat uat (Mo:192) orok 1153 *uɗan PRM rain rain *quzan Ø > ʔ /#_ in Dela-Oenale Physical world, weather udan {2} uda (J:662) uda uda uda uda udan uɗan (ʔ)uɗan ʔuɗan ʔuɗan urun, uurn uran {2} na-ʔura ulan (M:587) uran ulan udan (Mo:192) usan (dJ:141) okon usa əʄi əʄi 1154 *ue PRM rattan Calamus species rattan *quay *e > e ~ a in Meto Plants, useful plants ue (J:663) ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue (M:574) ua ue, ua ue agoe-l ua-l u/latu ui_latu hue oe 1155 *ufi PRM purple yam, greater yam Dioscorea alata tuber ; yam *qubi ‘yam |ui{Dioscorea alata}’ Plants, edible plants, tuber ufi (J:664) ufi ufi ufi ufi ufi ufi ufi ufi ufi rauk_ufi rauk_ufi laku ufi uhi uhi (Mo:193) 1156 *-uki PRM have, own, exist, wealth have ; own ; exist ; wealth k-9 The initial consonant correspondences in Rote and Meto cannot be reconciled. The remaining three segments show regular correspondences. Possession suʔi (J:571) suʔi suʔi suki suʔi suʔi suʔi suʔi suʔi n-muʔi {2} mu͡iʔi|t {3} n-maʔ|muʔi {4} n-haʔmuʔi n-muʔi {2} muʔi|t {3} maʔ|muʔi {4} n-haʔmuʔi n-muʔi (M:332) kmukit {2} muki muki {2} hmuki {3} hmukit mukit (Mo:144) mukit Helong, ETimor, Hawu-Dhao 1157 *ule Rote wring, wring out wring *puləs ‘twist, wring’ *p > Ø (expect *h); *ə > *e /_# (expect *ə > a in wRote, possibly *ə > *a > e) Actions ule (J:665) ule ule ule ule ule ule ule ule 1158 *ulə *ulə-k PRM worm, caterpillar worm ; snake ; creature *quləj ‘maggot, caterpillar, larva of a metamorphosing insect’ Meto kaunaʔ is probably from *ka-ulə-k with the nominal prefix *ka-. Creatures, bugs ule-k (J:665) ule-ʔ ule-k ule-ʔ ule-ʔ ule-k ule-k ula ula ula ka|una|ʔ ka|una|ʔ ka|una|ʔ (M:188) ka|una|ʔ ulas ular (Mo:193) orre ətu 1159 *uli Rote rudder rudder *qulin ‘rudder; steer (a boat)’ Motion, boats uli (J:666) uli uli uli uli uli uli uli uli na-uli ulin 1160 *ulu PRM front, head hair front ; hair, head ; long ago *qulu ‘head; top part; leader, chief; headwaters; handle of a bladed implement; prow of a boat; first, first-born’ *hulu Spatial relations ulu-k {2} ulu (J:666) ulu-ʔ {2} ulu ulu-k {2} ulu ulu-ʔ {2} ulu ulu-ʔ {2} ulu ulu-k {2} ulu ulu-k {2} ulu ulu-ʔ {2} ulu ulu-ʔ {2} ulu unu|ʔ unu|ʔ un~unu|ʔ (M:588) ulu(n) (Mo:193) ulu/wakun ulu-t 1161 *uma PRM house house *Rumaq *a > e /_# in wRM; vowel height harmony *e > i /uC_ in Amarasi and Kusa-Manea House uma (J:667) uma uma uma uma uma uma ume ume ume umi umi, ume ume (M:587) umi uma uma (Mo:193) ruma (dJ:136) rom 1162 *umbu *umbu-k PRM grandchild grandchild *umpu ‘grandparent/ grandchild (reciprocal); ancestor’ People, kin upu-k (J:670) upu-ʔ upu-k upu-ʔ upu=na upu-ʔ umpu-k umbu-k umbu-ʔ umbu-ʔ umbu-ʔ upu-f upu-f, upuʔ upu-f (M:590) upu-f ana-upun, upu-ana upu-n 1163 *unə *unə-k Rote scale of fish or reptile scale *quhənap ‘scale of fish’ PCEMP *qunəp/*qunap Creatures, aquatic une-k (J:668) une-ʔ une-k une-ʔ une-ʔ une-k une-k una-ʔ una-ʔ una-ʔ unaʔ 1164 *undu Rote bore a hole, make a hole bore (hole) *u > a in nRote I have reconstructed final *u (rather than *a) mainly on the basis of the external evidence from Hawu. Spatial relations una {2} una haʔi (J:668) una una una unda una unda undu undu pudu Hawu-Dhao 1165 *ura *ura-k Rote palm lines, lines/sinews in the liver of a dead animal (traditionally used for divination) palm line *uRat ‘artery, blood vessel, blood vein; muscle; nerve; sinew; tendon; fibre; vein of a leaf; grain of wood; strand (of thread, rope); fishing line; root’ *R = *r (expect Ø) *uat Body, internal organs ula-k (J:664f) ula-ʔ ula-k ula-ʔ ura-ʔ ula-k ura-k ura-ʔ urat (Mo:193) 1166 *usi₁ Rote pursue, chase away pursue ; chase *qusiR ‘pursuit (as of enemies or game)’ *Ø > h in Tii and Lole; *Ø > n in Dengka *i > e /_*R# in Dengka Motion usi (J:671) usi usi usi usi usi husi husi nuse 1167 *usi₂ PMeto king, lord king ; lord *usi ‘relative of the third ascending or descending generation’ PCMP Although Middelkoop (1972:592) makes a connection between this form and Javanese gusti ‘lord, master’, it is difficult to account for the lack of an initial consonant in Meto under a borrowing hypothesis. Furthermore, the pervasiveness of the term being used for deities that are central to the cosmology of the Atoni indicates this is unlikely to be a recently borrowed term. Social and political relations, people u͡isi-f, usiʔ {2} uis neno usi-f, usiʔ {2} uis neno usif, usiʔ {2} usif neno (M:592) {2} usneno {2} uis neno {3} uis paah usi (Mo:194) lusi ETimor 1168 *utan PRM vegetables vegetables *qutan ‘small, wild herbaceous plants; scrub-land, bush’ Plants, edible plants, vegetables uta-k, uta ai doo (J:671) uta ai doo uta ai doo uta ai doo uta ʔai doo uta ai doo uta-k, uta ai ɗoo uta-ʔ, uta ai ɗoo uta-ʔ, uta ai ɗoo uta-ʔ utu|k, uta|k utan utan (M:593) utan utan (dJ:141) 1169 *uti *uti-k PRM penis penis *qutin Body, limbs, legs, genitalia uti-k (J:671f) uti-ʔ uti-k uti-ʔ uti-ʔ uti-k uti-k tuti-ʔ uti-ʔ uti-ʔ uti-n uti-f (M:594) uti 1170 *uu *na-ŋɡa-uu Rote oink oink *uu ‘moaning sound’ onomatopoeia Creatures na-ŋa-uu, na-ŋa-u~uu, uu~uu (J:662) na-ka-u~uu na-ka-uu na-ŋɡa-u~uu na-ʔa-uu 1171 *uut nRM chaff chaff Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct *uta on the basis of Kambera uta and Selaru ut. Plants, edible plants, crops uu-k (J:662) uu-ʔ uu-k uu-ʔ uu-ʔ uu-k uu-k uut uut {2} ut~uut (M:593) uut uut (Mo:194) Helong, ETimor 1172 *waɗi PRM same sex younger sibling sibling, younger *huaji ‘younger sibling of the same sex; younger parallel cousin of the same sex’ Ø > ʔ /#_ in Dela-Oenale PwRM *oɗi, PnRote *faɗi People, kin fadi-k (J:119) fadi-ʔ fadi-k fadi-ʔ fadi=na fadi-ʔ fadi-k faɗi-k (ʔ)oɗi-ʔ ʔoɗi-ʔ ʔoɗi oriʔ ori-f oli-f (M:403) oriʔ palin ali-n (Mo:3) ali(n) (dJ:112) walin ari ari 1173 *wani PRM honey bee bee *wani PwRM *oni, PnRote *fani Creatures, bugs, insects, insects with wings, creature taxon fani (J:125) fani fani fani fani fani fani oni oni oni oni oni oni (M:405) oni pani wani uani(n) (Mo:192) wani 1174 #aɗulara Rote kind of yellow wood wood, yellow Hawu aʄu ‘wood’ + lara ‘yellow’ Clothing and grooming adulala (J:3, Heyne 1950:551,lvi) adulala adulala adulala adulala adulala aɗulala aɗulala aɗurala aʄu + lara 1175 #baʤu PRM garment garment Malay baju, ultimately Persian Clothing and grooming badu (J:19) ɓaruk baru 1176 #baʔat #ka-baʔat PMeto root root *wakaR *w > *b Probably borrowing from Helong into PMeto. The opposite direction of borrowing cannot easily explain medial k in Helong. Note, however, that PMP *w > b is irregular in both Helong and Meto. *oka₂ Plants, plant parts ʔbaʔa-f ʔbaʔat (M:39) baʔa-f ʔbaʔat kbakat 1177 #baluk Rote boat with one or two masts and no outrigger boat, kind of Blust and Trussel (ongoing) make a PMP reconstruction on the basis of this Rote form and Old Javanese, though they suggest the Rote form may be a loan. The Termanu form is almost certainly a Malay loan. Malay baluk, ultimately Arabic فلوكة falawakat Motion, boats (ofa) balu-k (J:29) 1178 #bane PRM bowl bowl ultimately Tamil பானை pāṉai [paːnai] ‘large earthen pot or vessel’ (Hoogervorst 2016) Tools bane (J:29) bane bane bane bane bane ɓane bane ɓane ʔ|fane|ʔ ʔ|fane|ʔ (M:110) 1179 #bnapa #bnapa-f PMeto side, ribs side ; rib probably Helong into Meto before *l > n. bl is a common cluster in Helong with more than 25 attestations in Balle and Cameron (2014) while bn is rare in Meto with only 7 attestations in my current Kotos Amarasi database Body, torso bnapa-n bnapa-f bnapa-n (M:74) seen blapas blapas 1180 #[b/p]andut PRM torch torch ultimately Malay panjut [paɲʤut] House banu-k (J:30) banu-ʔ banu-k banu-ʔ bandu-ʔ baru-ʔ banu-k ɓandu-k bandut paru paku paku (M:414) hadut badut (Mo:8) paʧu (dJ:133) waʈu Helong, ETimor, SW Maluku, Wetar 1181 #bruuk PMeto trousers trousers Dutch broek [bruːk] Clothing and grooming bruku bruuk bduuk bluuk 1182 #bukae PMeto eat, dine eat ; provisions k-6/9 the direction of borrowing between Meto and Tetun is unclear though the wider semantic range in Meto may point to it being the donor Food and drink n-bukae n-bukae bukae|l {2} n-bukae (M:88) n-bukae bukae (Mo:18) 1183 #ɓaɓa PRM help help ultimately a Chinese language, e.g. Hokkien 幫忙 pang-bâng [paŋ˦baŋ˨˦], Mandarin 帮帮 bāng bāng [baŋ˥baŋ˥] (imperative form) Social and political relations (J:18) baba baba baba baba baba ɓaɓa baba ɓaɓa n-baba n-baba (M:39) baba Helong 1184 #ɓanda Rote thing, animal animal ; thing ultimately Sanskrit भाण्ड bhāṇḍa [bʱaːɳɖa] ‘goods’, compare Malay barang ‘thing’ Tools bana (J:29) bana bana bana banda banda bara bana ɓanda banda ɓanda bare|ʔ bale mnasiʔ (M:46) bale|ʔ berai, barai, badain ɓada {2} ɓara baɖʐa 1185 #ɓasiu Rote dish dish Portuguese bacio [basiu] Food and drink, tools basiu (J:32) basiu basiu basiu basiu basiu ɓasiu basiu ɓasiu ɓahiu 1186 #ɓesi PRM iron iron Malay besi [bəsi] ultimately from an Indic language, such as Sanskrit वाशी vāśī [vaːʃiː] ‘sharp pointed knife or blade’, as proposed by Hoogervorst (2016:566) Tools besi (J:46) besi besi besi besi besi ɓesi besi ɓesi besi besi (M:60) 1187 #ɓuŋɡa Rote decorative flower flower, decorative Malay bunga [buŋa] *ɓuna Plants, plant parts buŋa (J:64) buŋa buŋa buka buŋɡa ɓuŋɡa buŋɡa 1188 #ɗaŋɡan PRM trade, commerce trade ; commerce Malay dagang Possession daŋan (J:75) daŋan daŋan daŋan dakan daŋɡan ɗaŋɡan ɗaŋɡan ɗaŋɡan n-rakan n-rakan a-lakan (M:18) dakaŋ raka (Mo:158) ʤagan (dJ:113) Helong, ETimor, Wetar 1189 #ɗoit PRM money money Dutch duit [dœyt] Possession doi-k (J:95) ɗoi-ʔ roit roit loit moloʔ (M:282) duit loit balanda doi 1190 #ʤala PRM cast net net ultimately Sanskrit जाल jāla [ʤaːla], perhaps via Malay jala Warfare and hunting dala (J:71) dala dala dala dala dala ɗala ɗala ɗala sala (M:471) sala ʄala ʄala 1191 #ʤinela nRM window window Portuguese janela [ʒanɛla], with reported regional variant jinela, ultimately from Vulgar Latin januella diminutive of iānua ‘door’ House dinela (J:88) ɗinela eno_sneer 1192 #en PMeto similar, like; to, towards, irrealis locative indicating a location where someone will be in the future similar ; to *e > o in Nuclear Meto probably Helong into Meto before *l > n Spatial relations en on on ii (M:405) on el 1193 #etu PMeto field field the direction of borrowing between Meto and Tetun is unclear though the wider semantic range in Tetun indicates it is probably the donor Plants, edible plants, crops etu etu (M:105) etu etun {2} liman etun {3} ai tuur etun {4} manu etun (Mo:30) 1194 #faɗuli PRM care for care for Arabic فضولي faḍuli [fadˤuli] ‘curious, inquisitive’, compare Malay peduli Social and political relations na-fa-duli (J:107) na-fa-duli na-fa-duli na-fa-duli na-fa-duli na-fa-duli na-fa-ɗuli na-fa-ɗuli na-fa-ɗuli n-fairori {2} n-pairori 1195 #fei Rote file file Dutch vijl [fɛil] Tools fei (J:130) fei fei fei fei fei fei fei fei vei 1196 #filanda Rote European person European Malay belanda [bəlanda], ultimately from Dutch Hollander ‘person from Holland’ Social and political relations, people filana (J:135) fili_ana filana fila_ana filanda filanda filana filanda filanda filanda balanda (Mo:9) walaʈe 1197 #fukar PMeto spices, seasonings spice ; seasoning k-6/9 probably Tetun into Meto given final r. Final r is rare in native Meto words (there are only about a dozen examples of final r in native words in my Kotos Amarasi database), but not uncommon in Tetun. The presence of this word in Galolen (whether native or borrowed) also probably indicates that Tetun is the ultimate donor Plants, edible fukar fukal (M:131) fukul fukar (Mo:37) 1198 #hada|k PMeto raised platform platform the direction of borrowing between Proto-Meto and Helong is unclear House harak (M:137) khadaŋ hadaŋ 1199 #haɗat PRM custom, tradition custom ; tradition ultimately Arabic عادة ʻādat [ʕaːdat] ‘custom, habit’ Social and political relations, religion and belief hada-k (J:151) harat harat hadat hadat, adat haʤak (dJ:155) Helong, ETimor, Wetar 1200 #horo Rote saw saw (n.) ultimately probably Portuguese corte [kɔrtə] Tools holo (J:189) holo holo holo horo holo horo holo horo holat korat (Mo:117) 1201 #huta #huta-k Rote debt, fine debt, fine Malay hutang Social and political relations, law huta-k (J:198) huta-ʔ huta-k huta-ʔ huta-ʔ huta-k huta-k huta-ʔ huta-ʔ 1202 #kaba PRM copper wire wire k-1 Malay kawat Tools (tali) kafa (J:212) kafa kafa kafa kafa kafa kafa kafa tain kaba (M:164) kaba 1203 #kaɓas PRM cotton cotton k-irr. ultimately Sanskrit कार्पास kārpāsa [kaːrpaːsa]. Reflexes of *k probably indicate this term probably dispersed after the break-up of PRM Clothing and grooming (ʔ)abas (J:1f) (ʔ)aba-ʔ kaba-ʔ ʔabas (ʔ)abas (ʔ)aɓas (ʔ)aɓas (ʔ)abas ʔaɓas ʔaɓas kabas ʔabas ʔabas (M:2) ʔabas kabas (Mo:92) ETimor 1204 #kadera PRM chair chair k-1 Portuguese cadeira [kadeira] House kadela (J:211) kaɗela kaɗera kanreer kanleel (M:180) kdeda dela kader (Mo:93) 1205 #kaɗo PRM sack sack k-2b Malay karung/kandung Tools ka~kado {2} (ka~)kado-k (J:211) ka~kado ka~kado na-kado (ʔ)a~(ʔ)ado ka~kado, kali_kado kali_kaɗo taʔi_(ʔ)aɗo (ʔ)a~(ʔ)aɗo, taʔi_(ʔ)aɗo ʔkaroʔ (M:175) karon (Mo:102) kaɗo 1206 #kameru|ʔ PMeto rice ear bug Leptocorisa oratorius rice ear bug While it is possible to reconstruct Proto-Flores-Lembata *kəmeruŋ which is cognate with Tetun kamerun (thus pointing to an earlier regional Austronesian term), the absence of this term in any Rote-Meto language apart from Kusa-Manea indicates that Kusa-Manea has borrowed this term from Tetun. Tetun into Kusa-Manea Creatures, bugs, insects, insects with wings, creature taxon kameruʔ kamerun kamiru (Mo:100) 1207 #kamba Rote buffalo buffalo k-2/3 Malay kerbau Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon kapa (J:221) kapa kapa kapa ʔapa ʔapa kampa kamba (ʔ)amba ʔamba ʔamba kabau karau (Mo:102) 1208 #kapir #ka-kapir PRM plaited palm leaf bag or pouch basket *kampil PWMP. Blust and Trussel (ongoing) note that the reflexes of this form may be a Malay loan distribution. k-1 *mp > *p; *l > *r *p > b in Molo Hawu also attests irregular medial b also found in Molo. Given the irregularities in the Rote and Meto forms, the reflexes included here were probably distributed by contact. Malay kampil Tools kapi-k (J:222) kapi-ʔ kapi-k kapi-ʔ kapi-k kapi-ʔ kapi-ʔ kapi-ʔ ka͡ipir ʔ|kapi|ʔ (M:165) kabir kabi 1209 #kari #kari-f PMeto kidneys kidneys k-2b The Meto cognates set indicates earlier medial **nd. While the Helong forms indicate earlier **ŋ(ɡ). This is perhaps a case of dissimilation of *ŋɡ > *nd /k_ in Meto. Compare PRM *kiŋɡi ‘cockroach’. probably an early borrowing from Helong into PMeto Body, internal organs ka͡iri-f, kaer-n=aa ʔaki-f ʔaki-f (M:14) ʔake-k khaŋin beas haŋin Helong 1210 #karu PRM cloth bag bag, cloth k-irr. an early borrowing from Malay karung or similar. The forms collected here probably represent several independent instances of borrowing Tools alu/kosu (J:9) alu/kosu alu/kosu alu/kosu alu/kosu alu/kosu alu/kosu alu/kosi alu/kosi a͡uru|k aru|k, aru|ʔ alu|ʔ, alu|k {2} (M:19) ka~karu ka~kalu (dJ:120) olo/kohu 1211 #kinde PRM spindle spindle k-irr. connected with Malay kincir ‘spinning wheel; spool, reel’. Reflexes of *k probably indicate this term was not borrowed into PRM, but has a later dispersion Clothing and grooming (ʔ)ine (J:203) (ʔ)ine (ʔ)ine kini ʔindi ʔinde ʔiri (ʔ)ina(_abas) (ʔ)inda (ʔ)inde (ʔ)inde (ʔ)inde kiri ʔike ʔike (M:159) kida (Mo:40) (On:211) ETimor, Flores, Sumba 1212 #k|naba|ʔ PMeto spider spider *lawaq *wa > *ba (expect *o) Probably borrowing from Tetun into pre-Meto before *l > Proto-Meto *n, as *w > b is regular in East Tetun. Welaun has dabadai(n) and this may also be the source for the Meto form. *lau Creatures, bugs, arachnids k|naba|ʔ k|naba|ʔ ʔ|nab~naba|ʔ (M:338) naba_k|ra~raʔi labadain labadain (Mo:122) 1213 #koeʤabas PRM guava guava k-1 In Meto the insertion of /ʤ/ can be explained as a (historic) process to break up the sequence of three vowels. All three vowels are still seen in the Baikeno form. Some varieties have subsequently undergone *ʤ > r, or in the case of Kusa-Manea (unexpected) *ʤ > l. The appearance of /ʤ/ or /d/ in Rote is not explicable in the same way and these forms may be from Meto. The Tetun form appears to result from a different borrowing event. Portuguese goiabas [gojaβas] (pl. of goiaba), ultimately Arawak guayabo Plants, edible plants, fruit kuʤabas, kudabas (J:255) kuʤawas kura͡ibis kuʤabis, kurabis, kurabe kuʤawas (M:244) koelabis koi-ʤ kurabis koeʤabis n.a. (akaba) koiabas, goiaba (Mo:116, 38) 1214 #kofa #kofa-k PRM canoe canoe k-irr. Reflexes of *k indicate that this term is a borrowing after the break-up of PRM. May be connected (irregularly) with PMP *qabaŋ. currently unidentified Motion, boats (ʔ)ofa-k (J:454) (ʔ)ofa-ʔ (ʔ)ofa-k kofa-ʔ (ʔ)ofa-ʔ ʔofa-ʔ (ʔ)ofa-k (ʔ)ofa-k (ʔ)ofa-ʔ ʔofa-ʔ ʔofa-ʔ kofa|ʔ kofa|ʔ kova Flores, Hawu-Dhao 1215 #koi PRM bed bed k-1 Dutch kooi [koːi], ultimately Latin cavea House koi koi koi koi koi kui koi 1216 #kopi PMeto knife knife *ɗombe Warfare and hunting opi opi (dJ:131,143) Wetar, SW Maluku 1217 #kota PRM fortress, city fort ; city k-1 ultimately Sanskrit कोट koṭa [koʈa] ‘fort’, perhaps via Malay kota Warfare and hunting kota (J:252) kota koot, kota koot (M:238) 1218 #kusapi PMeto Ceylon oak Schleichera oleosa |ui{Schleichera oleosa} k-2b Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PMP *kasambiʔ, but the tree is not native to this area. Hindi कुसुंब kusumb Plants, tree, plant taxon kusapi ʔusapi ʔusapi (M:591) ʔusapi sapiʔ 1219 #laisona PRM shallot, eschalot, onion Allium Ascalonicum shallot ; eschalot ; onion *n > Ø in Meto glottal stop insertion in Amarasi ultimately Sanskrit रसुन rasuna, perhaps via Makassar/Bugis lasuna. Plants, edible plants, vegetables laisona (J:271) laisona laisona laisona laisona laisona laisona laisona laisona naisoʔo naisoʔo laisˀone lahono SW Maluku 1220 #leko PMeto good good ; beautiful probably Helong into Meto after *l > n. If this were from Proto-Meto *reko, we would not expect initial l in the Waima'a out-comparison. Furthermore, Kusa-Manea does not have this form and instead has na-mria ‘good’. Emotions and values reko reko leko leko loko Helong, ETimor 1221 #maŋɡa Rote mango mango ultimately colloquial Tamil மாங்கா māṅgā [maːŋɡaː] (Tamil மாங்கனி māṅkaṉi [maːŋkani]), perhaps via Malay mangga Plants, edible plants, fruit (pao) maŋa (J:346) maŋa maŋa makas maŋɡa maŋɡa maŋɡa makas makas 1222 #(m)baha #(m)baha-k PRM fence fence Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PMP *pagər, but the correspondences in the east cannot be reconciled with this reconstruction. ultimately Sanskrit प्राकार prākāra House paʔa (J:460) paʔa mpaʔa mbaʔa mbaʔa mbaa mbaa baha|k baha|k bahan (M:41) bahan paha baʔa baha (Mo:8) 1223 #mei PRM table table In most known varieties of Meto insertion of [ʤ] occurs after /i/ before a vowel initial enclitic. Thus, Kotos Amarasi mei + =aa → meeʤaa [ˈmeːʤɐ] ~ [ˈmeːʒɐ] (with mid-high [eː] not mid-low [ɛː]). It would appear that the final vowel of Portuguese mesa [meza] was reanalysed as the determiner =aa (cf. *aa) with the previous [z] being analysed as an inserted consonant. Such an explanation is probably not possible for Rote, thus indicating that the Rote forms were borrowed from Meto. (Note further that in Baikeno and Amfo'an /ʤ/ is realised as [ʤ]~[ʒ]~[zʲ]~[z].) A similar process probably took place with cognates of #ŋɡarei ‘church’. Portuguese mesa [meza] House mei (J:354) mei mei mei mei mei mei mei mei mei mei (M:394) mei-ʤ mei-ʤ miʤa mesa (Mo:141) 1224 #mbarani Rote brave brave Either an early loan or a case of correspondence mimicry. Malay berani [bərani] Emotions and values palani (J:466) palani palani palani parani palani parani mbalani mbarani na-mba-rani 1225 #naka Rote anchor anchor k-5 an unidentified source. Compare Persian لنگر [laŋɡar], Hindi लंगर [laŋɡar], Kambera (Onvlee 1984:471), Bima maŋɡa (Ismail et al. 1985:85), Balinese maŋɡar (Kersten 1984:403), and Malay jangkar [ʤaŋkar]. The ending -aŋga(r) seems to be a kind of Wanderwort and may even be connected with Dutch anker [aŋkər], and English anchor [aŋkər] which are ultimately from Greek άγκυρα ankura Motion, boats naka (J:374) naka naka naka naʔa naka naka naka naka tenaga 1226 #nane #nane-f PMeto daughter-in-law, opposite sex sibling’s daughter daughter-in-law ; niece The Rote languages have phrases meaning literally ‘new woman’ for ‘daughter-in-law’, such as Termanu feto feu-k (Jonker 1908:134). probably Helong into Meto before *l > n. But note that Helong has manhiu ‘son-in-law’ which is a borrowing from another source as identified by the element hiu. This is ultimately from PMP *baqəRu ‘new’ which is otherwise retained regularly in Helong as balu People, kin nane-f nane-f (M:348) nale-n nale-n 1227 #nome PMeto Venus, morning star Venus ; star, morning Tetun naroma ‘light’ could be connected. Rikou has ruu manalepa bafi literally ‘the star carrying a pig’ for ‘Venus, morning star’ (Jonker 1908:722). The other Rote languages have phrases meaning ‘chicken star’, such as Termanu nduu manu-k (Jonker 1908:346). probably Helong into Meto before *l > n Physical world, sky, space faif noem faif nome faif nome {2} (M:380) paap lome 1228 #ndara Rote horse horse *nd > d in Rikou ultimately Javanese jaran [ʤaran] Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon ndala (J:413) ndala lala lala ndara dara rara ndala ndala ndara ndala ndara ndara 1229 #ŋɡadei PRM church church Jonker (1908:431) does not give the forms for each Rote language, but states: ‘dialects ŋalei, ŋɡarei, karei’. In most known varieties of Meto insertion of [ʤ] occurs after /i/ before a vowel initial enclitic. Thus, Kotos Amarasi krei + =aa → kreeʤaa [ˈkreːʤɐ] ~ [ˈkreːʒɐ] (with mid-high [eː] not mid-low [ɛː]). It would appear that the final vowel of Portuguese igreja [igreʒa] was reanalysed as the determiner =aa (cf. *aa) with the previous [ʒ] being analysed as an inserted consonant. (A similar process probably took place with cognates of #mei ‘table’.) Such an explanation is probably not possible for Rote, thus Meto may have been the donor for the Rote forms. However, proposing Meto as the intermediary for the Rote forms does not explain the ‘regular’ reflexes of *ŋɡ. This would appear to be a case of adaption of non-native Portuguese [g] with correspondence mimicry (Alpher and Nash 1999:14f). Portuguese igreja [igreʒa] Social and political relations, religion and belief ŋɡalei (J:431) ŋɡalei ŋalei ŋalei karei ŋɡalei ŋɡalei ŋɡarei ŋɡalei ŋɡarei krei krei klei (M:216) klei-ʤ, klii-ʤ 1230 #ŋɡusi PRM water jar jar Malay guci [guʧi] ‘earthenware jug’, ultimately Chinese, e.g. Mandarin 骨瓷 gǔ cí [gu˧˥ʦʰi˩˧] ‘bone china’ House ŋɡusi (J:450) ŋɡusi ŋɡusi ŋɡusi kusi kusi (M:253) kusi (Mo:122) kusi (dJ:122) uhi 1231 #ŋɡute Rote cut with scissors scissors Malay gunting [guntiŋ] Tools ŋɡute (J:450) ŋɡute ŋute ŋute kute ŋɡute ŋɡute ŋɡute ŋɡute 1232 #omba Rote wave, billow, swell at sea wave ; undulate *mb > m for second sense in Termanu Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct *humbak to PWMP, but this would require irr. *u > o in Rote. Malay ombak [ombaʔ] Physical world, sea na-o~opa {2} na-o~oma (J:457f) na-o~opa na-o~opa na-o~opa na-o~ompa na-o~omba na-o~omba 1233 #oras PwRM time time Portuguese horas [ɔɾas], plural of hora ‘hour, time’ Time oras ia oros oras olas (M:403) oras oras (Mo:156) ors 1234 #paha PRM chisel chisel Malay pahat Tools paʔa (J:461) paʔa paʔa paa paʔa mpaʔa paʔa paa paa paah pahat bahat (Mo:8) 1235 #papan PRM plank plank Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PMP *papan, but the forms here cannot be regularly derived from this. Malay papan House papa-k (J:469) papa-ʔ papa-k papa-ʔ papa-ʔ mpampa-k papa-k papa-ʔ papa-ʔ papan (M:422) 1236 #paria #paria-k PRM bitter melon Momordica charantia bitter melon An early loan as indicated by regular Meto *r > *l > n. Malay peria [pəria] Plants, edible plants, vegetables palia-k (J:466) palia-k palia-k paria-k palia paria pniaʔ 1237 #[p/b]isi PRM sprinkle sprinkle Meto and Helong show irregular initial consonants. The religious use of this word provides a cultural motivation for borrowing (see the note for the Hawu form). Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct *picik to PMP and include the Rote and Hawu forms as part of their evidence. However, (as they concede) *p > p would be irregular in Rote. Social and political relations, religion and belief pisi (J:486) pisi pisi pisi mpisi (pisi ?) bisin n-bisin (M:70) hitiʔ hisik (Mo:86) pihi, pihe ʧebe 1238 #piŋɡa #ka-piŋɡa-k PRM plate plate Malay pinggan, ultimately from Persian Food and drink, tools piŋa-k (J:485) piŋa-ʔ piŋa-k piŋa-ʔ bika-ʔ piŋɡa-k piŋɡa-k piŋɡa-ʔ piŋɡa-ʔ ʔ|pika|ʔ (M:437) piŋas bikan (Mo:13) 1239 #pohat #ka-pohat PMeto bark of tree, husk bark (n.) While borrowing between Helong and Meto is likely, the direction is unclear. Amarasi ʔpoho-f with medial h is probably a subsequent borrowing from Helong after this term had been share between these languages. Plants, plant parts pohoʔ ʔ|poho-f ʔ|poʔat (M:442) poʔat ʔ|poʔa-n ʔ|poʔo-f ʔ|poʔat, ʔ|poʔot kpohot pohot 1240 #pukat PRM dragnet dragnet k-9ʹ Malay pukat Warfare and hunting puʔa-k (J:499f) pua-k puʔa-k puka-ʔ puka-ʔ mpuʔa-k puʔa-k puʔat puʔat puʔat pukat 1241 #puli Rote cure, heal cure ; heal While this may ultimately be connected with PMP *pa-qudip the universal *d = l correspondence and *aqu = u show that this is a borrowing. Malay pulih Body puli (J:503) puli puli puli puli mpuli puli puli puli 1242 #rapa Rote bridle bridle Hawu into Rote Clothing and grooming lapa (J:281) lapa lapa lapa rapa lapa rapa la~lapa-t rapa rapa (On:432) 1243 #riti PRM copper, bracelet bracelet ; copper This is an early loan, as shown by Meto *r > *l > n. ultimately Sanskrit रीति rīti [riːti] ‘bell-metal’ Clothing and grooming liti (J:315) liti liti liti riti liti riti liti riti niti niti-ʤ liti riti (Mo:161) 1244 #roa #roa-k CER room room Malay ruang House loa-k (J:318) loa-ʔ loa-k loa-ʔ roa-ʔ loaŋ 1245 #rusa PRM deer deer *r > (*l) > n in Termanu, Korbafo, Bokai, and Ba'a Malay rusa Creatures, domesticated animals, creature taxon nusa (J:409) nusa nusa lusa rusa nusa rusa lusa rusa ruus luus (M:293) lusa rusa, bibi_rusa (Mo:162) 1246 #sama Rote same same ultimately Sanskrit सम sama, perhaps via Malay sama Spatial relations sama (J:518) sama sama sama sama sama sama sama 1247 #sarani PRM baptise baptise *n = n /l_ in Amfo'an (expect *n > l) The initial syllable was originally na which has been reanalysed as a third person agreement marker. This term is very old in the region. Grimes et al. 2014a state: ‘Widely used through much of eastern Indonesia in Malays and vernaculars, and its use has been established for centuries.’. Arabic نصراني naṣrānī [nasˤraːniː] ‘Christians’, compare Syriac ܢܳܨܪܳܝܳܐ naṣrāyā [nasˤraːjaː] ‘Nazarene’ Social and political relations, religion and belief salani (J:516) sarani salani sarani sarani na-srani {2} srani|ʔ na-slani {2} slaniʔ sarani 1248 #sarombo Rote pants, cover the body pants an unidentified source, possibly a language of Sulawesi give the Makassar form Clothing and grooming lopo {2} lopo~lopo {3} uma=a na-sa-lo~lopo (J:327) lopo lopo {2} lopo~lopo, na-sa-lo~lopo ropo lompo {2} lompo~lompo rombo {2} rombo~rombo, sa-ro~rombo {2} lombo~lombo, na-sa-lo~lombo sapolo robo SW Maluku, Hawu-Dhao, Sulawesi 1249 #seŋɡe Rote cloves Syzygium aromaticum cloves The first element in most forms may be connected with Malay pala ‘nutmeg’. Malay cengkeh [ʧeŋkeh] Plants, edible pela/seŋe (J:478) pela/seŋe pela/seŋe pela/seŋe pela/seke pela/seŋɡe pele/seŋɡe pela/seŋɡe seŋɡe 1250 #seremere PRM Malay gooseberry Phyllanthus acidus Malay gooseberry Malay cermelek [ʧermeleʔ] Plants, tree, plant taxon selemele(-k), selumele-k (J:532) sarmeri salmele (M:472) 1251 #soro Rote push forwards push Blust and Trussel (ongoing) reconstruct PWMP *suruŋ stating: ‘A number of these forms may be loans (from Malay […]), but the comparison as a whole cannot easily be dismissed as a product of borrowing.’ In the case of the Rote forms Jonker (1908) suggests they are borrowings from Malay and I agree, mainly due to the identical vowels which would not be explained by inheritance from *suruŋ. Malay sorong Motion solo (J:560) solo solo solo soro solo-k soro solo soro 1252 #sumba PRM oath, pledge; curse swear Malay sumpah Social and political relations, law supa (J:576) supa supa supa supa sumpa sumba sumba sumba n-supa sumpa 1253 #taɓe PRM greet greet Malay tabek/tabik, ultimately Sanskrit क्षन्तव्य kṣantavya [kʂantaʋja] ‘be pardoned, forgiven’ Social and political relations tabe-k (J:582) taɓe n-tabe tabe tabe 1254 #tai PRM weigh weigh Malay tahil ‘unit of measurement for gold’ Possession tai (J:586) tai tai tai tai tai tai tai tai n-tai tai (M:530) tai 1255 #tanda PRM sign sign Malay tanda An early borrowing as indicated by the regular correspondences, particularly *nd > *r > k in Amarasi Tools tana (J:293) tana tana tana tanda tana tanda tanda tanda taka tada ha-tada, ha-tadak, ha-tadan (Mo:81) 1256 #tasu PRM fry pan fry pan Portuguese tacho [taʃu] Food and drink, tools tasu (J:602f) tasu tasu tasu tasu tasu tasu tasu tasu tasu tasu (Mo:181) 1257 #tuhas Rote rice-cake snack cooked in a small container of woven young coconut leaves rice packet Malay ketupat. An early borrowing into Rote and Hawu as attested by the regular correspondences Food and drink tuʔas tuʔas tuʔas tuʔas katupa, katufa, katuba (Mo:104) keduʔe